BOXING JOE LOUIS VS JERSEY JOE WALCOTT NEGATIVES x3 FAMOUS PHOTOGRAPHER 1947

$1,265.18 Buy It Now, FREE Shipping, 30-Day Returns, eBay Money Back Guarantee
Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176290343494 BOXING JOE LOUIS VS JERSEY JOE WALCOTT NEGATIVES x3 FAMOUS PHOTOGRAPHER 1947. THREE 4X5 INCH 1947 NEGATIVES OF THE FAMOUS BOXING MATCH OF JERSEY JOE WALCOTT AND JOU LOUIS WITH ORIGINAL NEGATIVE ENVELOPE TAKEN BY FAMED MANHATTAN PHOTOGRAPHER JOHN DE BIASE  On December 5, 1947, at New York’s Madison Square Garden, Joe Louis, the reigning and defending heavyweight champion of the world, defended his long held title against Jersey Joe Walcott, the mercurial boxer-puncher from Camden, New Jersey. The Brown Bomber was approaching the end of his singular career and would retire, albeit briefly, after the rematch with Jersey Joe in June of ‘48. But their first fight was a shocker, confirming as it did that the champ was on the downside of his singular career, and that more things change, the more they stay the same. Louis was 56-1 coming into their first bout. Walcott’s record was 43-13-1. The fight was scheduled for 15 rounds.


ad decisions. Robberies. Ridiculous scorecards. Maybe nothing sickens a fight fan more than judges rendering a final verdict which makes a mockery of a hard-fought contest. Sadly, such incidents are legion in the history of our beloved sport and, in recent years, have only become more common. The worst decisions of all time? Take your pick: Pernell Whitaker shamelessly robbed in his fights with Julio Cesar Chavez and Jose Luis Ramirez; Timothy Bradley getting a win against Manny Pacquiao which absolutely no one could take seriously; Tyrone Everett robbed so bad against Alfredo Escalera the scores weren’t released until the next day; George Foreman, outboxed in almost every round, being gifted a win over unheralded Axel Schulz; or how about James Toney getting a decision over little-known contender Dave Tiberi that was so rancid it prompted politicians to call for a federal investigation. The list goes on and on. 111Walcott-Louis Needless to say, when an odious robbery takes place it creates an extremely frustrating situation for the loser, but what about the winner? The recipient of a bad decision is placed in a most awkward position; after all, it’s not their fault the judges got it wrong. Those who come out on the better end of a bad call often point to the opponent’s shortcomings, voicing such sentiments as, “He never hurt me,” or “All he did was run.” Or they may go as far, but no further, as citing difficulties impeding their own performance, such as an injury or a poor training camp. Never will you hear, “I don’t know what the judges were watching because I got beat. He deserves the win and it’s a shame they didn’t get it right.” The first knockdown.  The first knockdown. However, there is at least one instance of a boxer managing to exude class under this difficult circumstance. The boxer’s name is Joe Louis, the legendary “Brown Bomber.” By 1947, Louis had established himself as a living legend, not only the longest-reigning champion in heavyweight history, but the longest reigning world champion at any weight in the history of the sport. He had held the title for over a decade, successfully defending it 23 times, twenty by knockout. Even as he entered the twilight of his career, he appeared unbeatable, perhaps the best heavyweight in boxing history. Charles vs Walcott Jersey Joe Walcott. Drawing by Damien Burton. Jersey Joe Walcott had emerged as the next worthy opponent, challenger number 24, after scoring wins over Joey Maxim, Lee Oma, and Elmer Ray, but despite his merit as a top contender, few thought Walcott had any chance to win. After all, he was a former middleweight, a journeyman, with eleven losses on his record. Hell, he had even been Louis’ sparring partner at one point. Oddsmakers pegged Jersey Joe as a ten-to-one underdog. The crowd at Madison Square Garden almost witnessed one of greatest upsets in sports history. From the opening bell all could see that Louis was flat and uninspired, while Walcott appeared sharp and primed for a tough fight. Focused on an early knockout, the champion walked into a counter right hand in the first round and, to everyone’s shock, he hit the deck. It happened again in the fourth. louis-vs-walcott-msg-777 Walcott, now well ahead on points, went about cleanly out-boxing Louis with clever footwork, a stinging jab and a powerful right hand, winning round after round. Louis kept stalking, gunning for the knockout, but couldn’t find the target. In the last three rounds, Jersey Joe, assured by his corner that the victory was in the bag, stayed away from the champion, but even with Louis taking the final three rounds, to the eyes of most observers the contest clearly belonged to the challenger. Even before the decision was announced, the champion made a gesture indicating his own opinion of the outcome. As they tabulated the scores, Louis actually attempted to exit the ring, one of the only times this has happened in championship history. Disgusted with himself, and certain the decision would go to the challenger, Joe wanted to head to his dressing room and avoid the official verdict, but his corner and various ring officials convinced Louis to return. walcotknockdown Once the scorecards were read, with referee Ruby Goldstein voting for Walcott but the two ringside judges, inexplicably, giving the fight to Louis, the crowd erupted in an astonished outcry. And the winner and still champion did not smile or raise his arms in triumph, but instead made his way to Walcott, shook his hand, and said, “I’m sorry, Joe.” Later, when asked about Goldstein’s score for Walcott, Louis could have done the expected, mouthed the usual platitudes about it being a close fight, or that Walcott ran too much. Instead, he uttered just about the classiest comment possible: “I know Ruby,” said the immortal “Brown Bomber.” “He calls ’em like he sees ’em.” Louis vs Conn The great Joe Louis. Drawing by Damien Burton. Classy too was Joe’s decision to give Walcott an immediate rematch. Six months later Louis vs Walcott II took place, again in Yankee Stadium, and the bout moved so slowly the referee was forced to scold the combatants into actually fighting. In round eleven the champion connected with a powerful right and his follow-up combinations put Jersey Joe down for the count.    Arnold Raymond Cream (January 31, 1914 – February 25, 1994), best known as Jersey Joe Walcott, was an American professional boxer who competed from 1930 to 1953. He held the world heavyweight title from 1951 to 1952, and broke the record for the oldest man to win the title, at the age of 37. That record would eventually be broken in 1994 by 45-year-old George Foreman. Despite holding the world heavyweight title for a relatively short period of time, Walcott was regarded among the best heavyweights in the world during the 1940s and 1950s. After retiring from boxing, Walcott did some acting, playing small parts in a few movies and television shows. He also refereed several boxing matches, but after the controversial ending to the second fight between Muhammad Ali and Sonny Liston, Walcott was not asked to referee again. From 1971 to 1974, Walcott held the elected position of Sheriff of Camden County, New Jersey, the first African-American to do so. From 1975 to 1984, he was the chairman of the New Jersey State Athletic Commission. Early life Walcott was born in Pennsauken Township, New Jersey.[1] His father was an immigrant from St. Thomas, Danish West Indies. His mother was from Jordantown (Pennsauken Township), New Jersey. Walcott was only 15 years old when his father died. He quit school and worked in a soup factory to support his mother and 11 younger brothers and sisters. He also began training as a boxer. He took the name of his boxing idol, Joe Walcott, a welterweight champion from Barbados. He added "Jersey" to distinguish himself and show where he was from. Boxing career He debuted as a professional boxer on September 9, 1930, fighting Cowboy Wallace and winning by a knockout in round one. After five straight knockout wins, in 1933, he lost for the first time, beaten on points by Henry Wilson in Philadelphia. He built a record of 45 wins, 11 losses and 1 draw before challenging for the world title for the first time. Walcott lost early bouts against world-class competition. He lost a pair of fights to Tiger Jack Fox and was knocked out by contender Abe Simon. But that would change in 1945 when Walcott beat top heavyweights such as Joe Baksi, Lee Q. Murray, Curtis Sheppard and Jimmy Bivins. He closed out 1946 with a pair of losses to former light heavyweight champ Joey Maxim and heavyweight contender Elmer Ray, but he promptly avenged those defeats in 1947. Walcott vs Louis On December 5, 1947, he fought Joe Louis, at thirty-three years of age breaking the record as the oldest man to fight for the world heavyweight title. Despite dropping Louis in round one and again in round four, he lost a 15-round split decision. Most ringside observers and boxing writers felt Walcott deserved the win; a debate ensued, and sportswriters carried the topic throughout America. The lone official to vote for Walcott, referee Ruby Goldstein, was cast as a hero. Letters and telegrams poured in to the Goldstein household, praising his judgment. There was talk of an investigation being assembled for rule revisions in judging. Louis went into seclusion for a couple of days, then quieted dissent with the following: "I know Ruby. He calls them as he sees them and that should be good enough for anybody."[2] What controversy remained was the kind that builds the gate, and Jersey Joe was rightfully granted a rematch on June 25, 1948. Though dropped again, this time in the third, Louis prevailed by a knockout in round 11. The bout was the first closed-circuit telecast (CCTV) sports broadcast, distributed via theatre television.[3] Walcott vs Charles On June 22 of 1949, Walcott got another chance to become world heavyweight champion when he and Ezzard Charles met for the title left vacant by Louis. However, Charles prevailed, winning by decision in 15 rounds. Walcott, disappointed but eager to see his dream of being a champion come true, went on, and in 1950 he won four of his five bouts, including a third-round knockout of future world light heavyweight champion Harold Johnson. On March 7, 1951, he and Charles fought for a second time and again Charles won a 15-round decision to retain his world title. But on July 18, he joined a handful of boxers who claimed the world title in their fifth try, when he knocked out Charles in seven rounds in Pittsburgh to finally become world heavyweight champion at the age of 37.[4] This made him the oldest man ever to win the world heavyweight crown a distinction he would hold until George Foreman won the title at age 45 in 1994. Losing the Title Walcott retained the title with a 15-round decision victory against arch-enemy Charles. On September 23, 1952, he put his title on the line for the second time. His opponent was the undefeated Rocky Marciano. In the first round, Walcott floored Marciano with a left hook; the first time in his career that Rocky had ever been down. After twelve intense rounds, Walcott stood well ahead on two of the three official scorecards, leaving Marciano needing a knockout to win. In the thirteenth round, with Marciano pressuring Walcott against the ropes, simultaneously each threw a right hand. Marciano landed first and flush on Walcott's jaw with what many consider the hardest punch thrown in boxing history.[citation needed] The title changed hands in an instant. Walcott collapsed with his left arm hanging over the ropes, slowly sinking to the canvas, where he was counted out. An immediate rematch was set for May 15, 1953 in Chicago. The second time around Walcott was again defeated by Marciano by a knockout, this time in the first round. It would be Walcott's last bout. Life after boxing Arnold "Jersey Joe Walcott" Cream[5][6] Sheriff of Camden County, New Jersey In office 1971[6]–1974[6] Preceded by Martin Segal[6] Succeeded by Joseph W. Coyle[6] Personal details Born January 31, 1914 Pennsauken Township, New Jersey, U.S. Died February 25, 1994 (aged 80) Camden, New Jersey, U.S. Resting place Sunset Memorial Park Cemetery Pennsauken Township, New Jersey Nationality American Political party Democratic Residence Camden, New Jersey, U.S. Occupation Boxer Walcott did not go away from the celebrity scene after boxing. In 1956, he co-starred with Humphrey Bogart and Max Baer in the boxing drama The Harder They Fall. In 1963, he tried professional wrestling, losing to Lou Thesz. Thesz pinned Walcott in the fifth round, but has stated that Walcott knocked him (Thesz) down and most likely out in that fifth round. As he fell to the floor, he relied on instinct, grabbing Walcott's knees, taking him down with him and stretching him out for the pin. In 1965, Walcott refereed the controversial world heavyweight championship rematch between Muhammad Ali and Sonny Liston. Walcott lost the count as Ali circled around a floored Liston and Walcott tried to get him back to a neutral corner. Walcott then looked outside of the ring (presumably to the ringside count keeper) as Ali and Liston went at each other, before Walcott instructed them to keep on fighting. Walcott then approached the fighters and abruptly stopped the fight. Walcott was never again appointed as a referee after this bout. Political career After retiring, Walcott worked for the Camden County corrections department.[7] In 1968, he ran for Sheriff of Camden County, New Jersey, but lost in the Democratic primary to Spencer H. Smith Jr.[5][8] That same year he was named director of community relations for Camden.[7] In 1971, he ran again for Camden County Sheriff. He defeated Republican William Strang in the general election.[7] He was the first African-American to serve as Sheriff in Camden County.[9] He served as chairman of the New Jersey State Athletic Commission from 1975 until 1984, when he stepped down at the mandatory retirement age of 70. Walcott was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in Canastota, New York. Partial filmography The Harder They Fall (1956) - George The Super Fight (1970) - Himself (voice) Professional boxing record Professional record summary  71 fights 51 wins 18 losses By knockout 32 6 By decision 18 12 By disqualification 1 0 Draws 2 No. Result Record Opponent Type Round(s), time Date Location Notes 71 Loss 51–18–2 Rocky Marciano KO 1 (15), 2:25 May 15, 1953 Chicago Stadium, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. For NBA, NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight title 70 Loss 51–17–2 Rocky Marciano KO 13 (15), 0:43 Sep 23, 1952 Municipal Stadium, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. Lost NBA, NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight title 69 Win 51–16–2 Ezzard Charles UD 15 Jun 5, 1952 Municipal Stadium, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. Retained NBA, NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight title 68 Win 50–16–2 Ezzard Charles KO 7 (15), 0:55 Jul 18, 1951 Forbes Field, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. Won NBA, NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight titles 67 Loss 49–16–2 Ezzard Charles UD 15 Mar 7, 1951 Olympia, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. For NBA, NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight titles 66 Loss 49–15–2 Rex Layne UD 10 Nov 24, 1950 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 65 Win 49–14–2 Hein ten Hoff UD 10 May 28, 1950 Rhein-Neckar-Stadion, Mannheim, West Germany 64 Win 48–14–2 Johnny Shkor KO 1 (10), 1:34 Mar 13, 1950 Philadelphia Arena, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 63 Win 47–14–2 Omelio Agramonte TKO 7 (10), 2:11 Mar 3, 1950 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 62 Win 46–14–2 Harold Johnson KO 3 (10), 1:03 Feb 8, 1950 Philadelphia Arena, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 61 Win 45–14–2 Olle Tandberg TKO 5 (12), 2:30 Aug 14, 1949 Råsunda Stadium, Stockholm, Sweden 60 Loss 44–14–2 Ezzard Charles UD 15 Jun 22, 1949 Comiskey Park, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. For vacant NBA heavyweight title 59 Loss 44–13–2 Joe Louis KO 11 (15) Jun 25, 1948 Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. For NBA, NYSAC, The Ring heavyweight title 58 Loss 44–12–2 Joe Louis SD 15 Dec 5, 1947 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. For NBA, NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight title 57 Win 44–11–2 Joey Maxim SD 10 Jun 23, 1947 Gilmore Field, Los Angeles, California, U.S. 56 Win 43–11–2 Elmer Ray MD 10 Mar 4, 1947 Burdine Stadium, Miami, Florida, U.S. 55 Win 42–11–2 Joey Maxim MD 10 Jan 6, 1947 Convention Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 54 Loss 41–11–2 Elmer Ray SD 10 Nov 15, 1946 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 53 Loss 41–10–2 Joey Maxim PTS 10 Aug 28, 1946 Public Service Ballpark, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 52 Win 41–9–2 Tommy Gómez TKO 3 (10) Aug 16, 1946 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 51 Win 40–9–2 Lee Oma UD 10 May 24, 1946 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 50 Win 39–9–2 Al Blake TKO 4 (10) Mar 20, 1946 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 49 Win 38–9–2 Jimmy Bivins SD 10 Feb 25, 1946 Cleveland Arena, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. 48 Win 37–9–2 Johnny Allen KO 3 (10) Jan 30, 1946 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 47 Win 36–9–2 Curtis Sheppard KO 10 (10) Dec 10, 1945 Coliseum, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. 46 Win 35–9–2 Lee Q. Murray DQ 9 (10) Nov 12, 1945 Coliseum, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. Murray disqualified for inactivity 45 Win 34–9–2 Steve Dudas TKO 5 (10), 1:50 Oct 23, 1945 Paterson, New Jersey, U.S. 44 Win 33–9–2 Johnny Denson KO 2 (10), 1:06 Sep 20, 1945 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 43 Win 32–9–2 Joe Baksi PTS 10 Aug 2, 1945 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 42 Win 31–9–2 Johnny Allen PTS 8 Mar 15, 1945 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 41 Win 30–9–2 Austin Johnson PTS 6 Feb 22, 1945 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 40 Loss 29–9–2 Johnny Allen PTS 8 Jan 25, 1945 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 39 Win 29–8–2 Jackie Saunders TKO 2 (8) Jan 11, 1945 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 38 Win 28–8–2 Ellis Singleton KO 3 (8) Jun 28, 1944 Batesville AC, Haddonfield, New Jersey, U.S. 37 Win 27–8–2 Felix Del Paoli PTS 8 Jun 7, 1944 Batesville AC, Haddonfield, New Jersey, U.S. 36 Loss 26–8–2 Abe Simon KO 6 (8), 2:32 Feb 12, 1940 Laurel Garden, Newark, New Jersey, U.S. 35 Win 26–7–2 Tiger Red Lewis TKO 6 (8) Jan 19, 1940 Cambria AC, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 34 Win 25–7–2 Curtis Sheppard PTS 8 Nov 18, 1939 Rockland Palace, New York City, New York, U.S. 33 Win 24–7–2 Al Boros PTS 8 Aug 14, 1939 Meadowbrook Bowl, Newark, New Jersey, U.S. 32 Win 23–7–2 Bob Tow PTS 8 Dec 23, 1938 114th Infantry Regiment Armory, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 31 Loss 22–7–2 Roy Lazer PTS 8 Jun 14, 1938 Fairview Arena, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 30 Loss 22–6–2 Tiger Jack Fox PTS 10 May 10, 1938 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 29 Win 22–5–2 Lorenzo Pack KO 4 (8) Apr 12, 1938 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 28 Win 21–5–2 Art Sykes KO 4 (8) Mar 25, 1938 Cambria AC, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 27 Win 20–5–2 Jim Whitest PTS 8 Jan 20, 1938 Olympia AC, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 26 Win 19–5–2 Freddie Fiducia PTS 8 Jan 10, 1938 Philadelphia Arena, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 25 Loss 18–5–2 George Brothers PTS 8 Oct 9, 1937 Rockland Palace, New York City, New York, U.S. 24 Win 18–4–2 Elmer Ray KO 3 (6), 0:43 Sep 25, 1937 Rockland Palace, New York City, New York, U.S. 23 Win 17–4–2 Joe Lipps KO 2 (8) Sep 3, 1937 Garden Pier, Atlantic City, New Jersey, U.S. 22 Loss 16–4–2 Tiger Jack Fox KO 8 (10), 2:24 May 22, 1937 Rockland Palace, New York City, New York, U.S. 21 Loss 16–3–2 Billy Ketchell PTS 10 Sep 1, 1936 Arena, Pennsauken, New Jersey 20 Win 16–2–2 Carmen Passarella PTS 8 Aug 1, 1936 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 19 Draw 15–2–2 Billy Ketchell PTS 10 Jul 14, 1936 Arena, Pennsauken, New Jersey, U.S. 18 Win 15–2–1 Phil Johnson TKO 3 (6), 1:12 Jun 22, 1936 Shibe Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 17 Win 14–2–1 Louis LePage KO 3 (6), 1:06 Jun 16, 1936 Coney Island Velodrome, New York City, New York, U.S. 16 Draw 13–2–1 Billy Ketchell PTS 10 Jun 4, 1936 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 15 Win 13–2 Joe Colucci KO 4 (10) Apr 28, 1936 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 14 Win 12–2 Willie Reddish PTS 8 Mar 16, 1936 Philadelphia Arena, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 13 Loss 11–2 Al Ettore KO 8 (10), 1:18 Jan 21, 1936 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 12 Win 11–1 Roxie Allen KO 8 (8), 1:06 Nov 26, 1935 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 11 Win 10–1 Al King KO 1 (8), 1:29 Oct 29, 1935 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 10 Win 9–1 Pat Roland KO 4 (8) Oct 1, 1935 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 9 Win 8–1 Lew Alva KO 1 (8) Aug 27, 1935 Arena, Pennsauken, New Jersey, U.S. 8 Win 7–1 Al Lang KO 1 (6) May 21, 1935 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. Exact date unknown 7 Loss 6–1 Henry Taylor PTS 6 Nov 16, 1933 New Broadway AC, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 6 Win 6–0 Henry Taylor TKO 1 (6), 1:16 Jul 28, 1933 Arena, Pennsauken, New Jersey, U.S. 5 Win 5–0 Bob Norris KO 1 (6) May 5, 1933 Camden, New Jersey, U.S. Exact date unknown 4 Win 4–0 Carl Mays KO 2 (6) Apr 20, 1931 Waltz Dream Arena, Atlantic City, New Jersey, U.S. 3 Win 3–0 Frank Mitchell TKO 4 (6) Oct 24, 1930 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 2 Win 2–0 Jimmy O'Toole TKO 4 (6) Oct 10, 1930 Convention Hall, Camden, New Jersey, U.S. 1 Win 1–0 Eddie Wallace KO 1 (6) Sep 9, 1930 Ice Arena, Vineland, New Jersey, U.S. Honors In 2013, Walcott was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame.[10] See also Joseph Louis Barrow (May 13, 1914 – April 12, 1981) was an American professional boxer who competed from 1934 to 1951. Nicknamed the Brown Bomber, Louis is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential boxers of all time. He reigned as the world heavyweight champion from 1937 until his temporary retirement in 1949. He was victorious in 25 consecutive title defenses, a record for all weight classes.[nb 1][1] Louis had the longest single reign as champion of any boxer in history. Louis's cultural impact was felt well outside the ring. He is widely regarded as the first person of African-American descent to achieve the status of a nationwide hero within the United States, and was also a focal point of anti-Nazi sentiment leading up to and during World War II because of his historic rematch with German Boxer Max Schmeling in 1938.[2] He was instrumental in integrating the game of golf, breaking the sport's color barrier in America by appearing under a sponsor's exemption in a PGA event in 1952.[3][4][5] Early life Born in rural Chambers County, Alabama—in a ramshackle dwelling on Bell Chapel Road, located about 1 mile (2 kilometres) off state route 50 and roughly 6 miles (10 kilometres) from LaFayette—Louis was the seventh of eight children of Munroe Barrow and Lillie (Reese) Barrow.[6][7] He weighed 11 pounds (5 kg) at birth.[6] Both of his parents were children of former slaves, alternating between sharecropping and rental farming.[8] Munroe was an African American with some European ancestry, while Lillie was half Cherokee.[8] Louis suffered from a speech impediment and spoke very little until about the age of six.[9] Munroe Barrow was committed to a mental institution in 1916 and, as a result, Joe knew very little of his biological father.[10] Around 1920, Louis's mother married Pat Brooks, a local construction contractor, having received word that Munroe Barrow had died while institutionalized (in reality, Munroe Barrow lived until 1938, unaware of his son's fame).[11] In 1926, shaken by a gang of white men in the Ku Klux Klan, Louis's family moved to Detroit, Michigan, forming part of the post-World War I Great Migration.[12][13] Joe's brother worked for Ford Motor Company (where Joe would himself work for a time at the River Rouge Plant)[14] and the family settled into a home at 2700 Catherine (now Madison) Street in Detroit's Black Bottom neighborhood.[15][16] Louis attended Bronson Vocational School for a time to learn cabinet-making.[14][16] Amateur career The Great Depression hit the Barrow family hard, but as an alternative to gang activity, Joe began to spend time at a local youth recreation center at 637 Brewster Street in Detroit. His mother attempted to get him interested in playing the violin.[17] A classic story is that he tried to hide his pugilistic ambitions from his mother by carrying his boxing gloves inside his violin case. Louis made his debut in early 1932 at the age of 17. Legend has it that before the fight, the barely literate Louis wrote his name so large that there was no room for his last name, and thus became known as "Joe Louis" for the remainder of his boxing career. More likely, Louis simply omitted his last name to keep his boxing a secret from his mother. After this debut—a loss to future Olympian Johnny Miler—Louis compiled numerous amateur victories, eventually winning the club championship of his Brewster Street recreation center, the home of many aspiring Golden Gloves fighters.[16] In 1933, Louis won the Detroit-area Golden Gloves Novice Division championship against Joe Biskey for the light heavyweight classification.[16] He later lost in the Chicago Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions. The next year, competing in the Golden Gloves' Open Division, he won the light heavyweight classification, this time also winning the Chicago Tournament of Champions against Max Bauer.[16][18] However, a hand injury forced Louis to miss the New York/Chicago Champions' cross-town bout for the ultimate Golden Gloves championship. In April 1934, he followed up his Chicago performance by winning the light heavyweight United States Amateur Champion National AAU tournament in St. Louis, Missouri.[16][18] By the end of his amateur career, Louis's record was 50–4, with 43 knockouts.[19][16][nb 2] Professional career Joe Louis had only three losses in his 69 professional fights. He tallied 52 knockouts and held the championship from 1937 to 1949, the longest span of any heavyweight titleholder. After returning from retirement, Louis failed to regain the championship in 1950, and his career ended after he was knocked out by Rocky Marciano in 1951.[20] Early years Louis's amateur performances attracted the interest of professional promoters, and he was soon represented by a black Detroit-area bookmaker named John Roxborough. As Louis explained in his autobiography, Roxborough convinced the young fighter that white managers would have no real interest in seeing a black boxer work his way up to title contention: [Roxborough] told me about the fate of most black fighters, ones with white managers, who wound up burned-out and broke before they reached their prime. The white managers were not interested in the men they were handling but in the money they could make from them. They didn't take the proper time to see that their fighters had a proper training, that they lived comfortably, or ate well, or had some pocket change. Mr. Roxborough was talking about Black Power before it became popular.[16][21] Roxborough knew a Chicago area boxing promoter named Julian Black who already had a stable of mediocre boxers against which Louis could hone his craft, this time in the heavyweight division. After becoming part of the management team, Black hired fellow Chicago native Jack "Chappy" Blackburn as Louis's trainer. Louis's initial professional fights were all in the Chicago area, his professional debut coming on July 4, 1934, against Jack Kracken in the Bacon Casino on Chicago's south side.[16] Louis earned $59 for knocking out Kracken in the first round. $59.00 in 1934 is equivalent to $1,148.60 in 2020 dollars.[16] Louis won all 12 of his professional fights that year, 10 by knockout.[16] In September 1934, while promoting a Detroit-area "coming home" bout for Louis against Canadian Alex Borchuk, Roxborough was pressured by members of the Michigan State Boxing Commission to have Louis sign with white management. Roxborough refused and continued advancing Louis's career with bouts against heavyweight contenders Art Sykes and Stanley Poreda. While training for a fight against Lee Ramage, Louis noticed a young female secretary for the black newspaper at the gym. After Ramage was defeated, the secretary, Marva Trotter, was invited to the celebration party at Chicago's Grand Hotel. Trotter later became Louis's first wife in 1935.[16] During this time, Louis also met Truman Gibson, the man who would become his personal lawyer.[16] As a young associate at a law firm hired by Julian Black, Gibson was charged with personally entertaining Louis during the pendency of business deals. Title contention Although Louis's management was finding him bouts against legitimate heavyweight contenders, no path to the title was forthcoming. While professional boxing was not officially segregated, many white Americans had become wary of the prospect of another black champion in the wake of Jack Johnson's highly unpopular (among whites) "reign" atop the heavyweight division.[22] During an era of severe anti-black repression, Jack Johnson's unrepentant masculinity and marriage to a white woman engendered an enormous backlash that greatly limited opportunities of black fighters in the heavyweight division. Black boxers were denied championship bouts, and there were few heavyweight black contenders at the time, though there were African Americans who fought for titles in other weight divisions, and a few notable black champions, such as Tiger Flowers. Louis and his handlers would counter the legacy of Johnson by emphasizing the Brown Bomber's modesty and sportsmanship.[22][23] Biographer Gerald Astor stated that "Joe Louis' early boxing career was stalked by the specter of Jack Johnson".[22][24] If Louis were to rise to national prominence among such cultural attitudes, a change in management would be necessary. In 1935, boxing promoter Mike Jacobs sought out Louis's handlers. After Louis's narrow defeat of Natie Brown on March 29, 1935, Jacobs and the Louis team met at the Frog Club, a black nightclub, and negotiated a three-year exclusive boxing promotion deal.[25] The contract, however, did not keep Roxborough and Black from attempting to cash in as Louis's managers; when Louis turned 21 on May 13, 1935, Roxborough and Black each signed Louis to an onerous long-term contract that collectively dedicated half of Louis's future income to the pair.[21] Black and Roxborough continued to carefully and deliberately shape Louis's media image. Mindful of the tremendous public backlash Johnson had suffered for his unapologetic attitude and flamboyant lifestyle, they drafted "Seven Commandments" for Louis's personal conduct. These included: Never have his picture taken with a white woman Never gloat over a fallen opponent Never engage in fixed fights Live and fight clean[26][27] As a result, Louis was generally portrayed in the white media as a modest, clean-living person, which facilitated his burgeoning celebrity status.[28] With the backing of a major promotion, Louis fought thirteen times in 1935. The bout that helped put him in the media spotlight occurred on June 25, when Louis knocked out 6'6", 265-pound former world heavyweight champion Primo Carnera in six rounds. Foreshadowing the Louis–Schmeling rivalry to come, the Carnera bout featured a political dimension. Louis's victory over Carnera, who symbolized Benito Mussolini's regime in the popular eye, was seen as a victory for the international community, particularly among African Americans, who were sympathetic to Ethiopia, which was attempting to maintain its independence by fending off an invasion by fascist Italy.[29][30][31] America's white press began promoting Louis's image in the context of the era's racism; nicknames they created included the "Mahogany Mauler", "Chocolate Chopper", "Coffee-Colored KO King", "Safari Sandman", and one that stuck: "The Brown Bomber".[31][32] Helping the white press to overcome its reluctance to feature a black contender was the fact that in the mid-1930s boxing desperately needed a marketable hero. Since the retirement of Jack Dempsey in 1929, the sport had devolved into a sordid mixture of poor athletes, gambling, fixed fights, thrown matches, and control of the sport by organized crime.[22] New York Times Columnist Edward Van Ness wrote, "Louis ... is a boon to boxing. Just as Dempsey led the sport out of the doldrums ... so is Louis leading the boxing game out of a slump."[22] Likewise, biographer Bill Libby asserted that "The sports world was hungry for a great champion when Louis arrived in New York in 1935."[22][33] While the mainstream press was beginning to embrace Louis, many still opposed the prospect of another black heavyweight champion. In September 1935, on the eve of Louis's fight with former titleholder Max Baer, Washington Post sportswriter Shirley Povich wrote about some Americans' hopes for the white contender, "They say Baer will surpass himself in the knowledge that he is the lone white hope for the defense of Nordic superiority in the prize ring."[22] However, the hopes of white supremacists would soon be dashed. Although Baer had been knocked down only once before in his professional career (by Frankie Campbell), Louis dominated the former champion, knocking him out in the fourth round. Later that year, Louis also knocked out Paolino Uzcudun, who had never been knocked down before. Louis vs. Schmeling I Louis vs. Schmeling, 1936 Main article: Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling By this time, Louis was ranked as the No. 1 contender in the heavyweight division[34] and had won the Associated Press' "Athlete of the Year" award for 1935.[31] What was considered to be a final tune-up bout before an eventual title shot was scheduled for June 1936 against Max Schmeling. Although a former world heavyweight champion, Schmeling, who had been knocked out by the same Max Baer Louis had handily beaten, was not considered a threat to Louis, then with a professional record of 27–0.[35] Schmeling had won his title on a technicality when Jack Sharkey was disqualified after giving Schmeling a low blow in 1930. Schmeling was also 30 years old at the time of the Louis bout and allegedly past his prime.[35] Louis's training retreat was located at Lakewood, New Jersey, where he was first able to practice the game of golf, which would later become a lifelong passion.[36] Noted entertainer Ed Sullivan had initially sparked Louis's interest in the sport by giving an instructional book to Joe's wife Marva.[4] Louis spent significant time on the golf course rather than training for the match.[21][37] Conversely, Schmeling prepared intently for the bout. He had thoroughly studied Louis's style and believed he had found a weakness.[38] By exploiting Louis's habit of dropping his left hand low after a jab, Schmeling handed Louis his first professional loss by knocking him out in round 12 at Yankee Stadium on June 19, 1936.[39] The event would lead to the historic rematch of the two, in one of the world's most famous sporting events. World championship After defeating Louis, Schmeling expected a title shot against James J. Braddock, who had unexpectedly defeated Max Baer for the heavyweight title the previous June. Madison Square Garden (MSG) had a contract with Braddock for the title defense and also sought a Braddock–Schmeling title bout. But Jacobs and Braddock's manager Joe Gould had been planning a Braddock–Louis matchup for months.[40] Louis in 1937 Schmeling's victory gave Gould tremendous leverage, however. If he were to offer Schmeling the title chance instead of Louis, there was a very real possibility that Nazi authorities would never allow Louis a shot at the title.[40] Gould's demands were therefore onerous: Jacobs would have to pay 10% of all future boxing promotion profits (including any future profits from Louis's future bouts) for ten years.[41] Braddock and Gould would eventually receive more than $150,000 from this arrangement.[41] Well before the actual fight, Jacobs and Gould publicly announced that their fighters would fight for the heavyweight title on June 22, 1937.[41] Figuring that the New York State Athletic Commission would not sanction the fight in deference to MSG and Schmeling, Jacobs scheduled the fight for Chicago.[41] Each of the parties involved worked to facilitate the controversial Braddock–Louis matchup. Louis did his part by knocking out former champion Jack Sharkey on August 18, 1936. Meanwhile, Gould trumped up anti-Nazi sentiment against Schmeling,[42] and Jacobs defended a lawsuit by MSG to halt the Braddock–Louis fight. A federal court in Newark, New Jersey, eventually ruled that Braddock's contractual obligation to stage his title defense at MSG was unenforceable for lack of mutual consideration.[42] The stage was set for Louis's title shot. On the night of the fight, June 22, 1937, Braddock was able to knock Louis down in round one, but afterward could accomplish little. After inflicting constant punishment, Louis defeated Braddock in round eight, knocking him out cold with a strong right hand that busted James' teeth through his gum shield and lip and sent him to the ground for a few minutes. It was the first and only time that Braddock was knocked out (the one other stoppage of Braddock's career was a TKO due to a cut). Louis's ascent to the world heavyweight championship was complete. Louis's victory was a seminal moment in African American history. Thousands of African Americans stayed up all night across the country in celebration.[2] Noted author and member of the Harlem Renaissance Langston Hughes described Louis's effect in these terms: Each time Joe Louis won a fight in those depression years, even before he became champion, thousands of black Americans on relief or W.P.A., and poor, would throng out into the streets all across the land to march and cheer and yell and cry because of Joe's one-man triumphs. No one else in the United States has ever had such an effect on Negro emotions—or on mine. I marched and cheered and yelled and cried, too.[43] Initial title defenses Despite his championship, Louis was haunted by the earlier defeat to Schmeling. Shortly after winning the title, he was quoted as saying, "I don't want to be called champ until I whip Max Schmeling."[35] Louis's manager Mike Jacobs attempted to arrange a rematch in 1937, but negotiations broke down when Schmeling demanded 30% of the gate.[44] When Schmeling instead attempted to arrange for a fight against British Empire champion Tommy Farr, known as the "Tonypandy Terror",—ostensibly for a world championship to rival the claims of American boxing authorities—Jacobs outmaneuvered him, offering Farr a guaranteed $60,000 to fight Louis instead. The offer was too lucrative for Farr to turn down.[45] On August 30, 1937, after a postponement of four days due to rain, Louis and Farr finally touched gloves at New York's Yankee Stadium before a crowd of approximately 32,000.[46] Louis fought one of the hardest battles of his life. The bout was closely contested and went the entire 15 rounds, with Louis being unable to knock Farr down. Referee Arthur Donovan was even seen shaking Farr's hand after the bout, in apparent congratulation.[47] Nevertheless, after the score was announced, Louis had won a controversial unanimous decision.[47][48] Time described the scene thus: "After collecting the judges' votes, referee Arthur Donovan announced that Louis had won the fight on points. The crowd of 50,000 ... amazed that Farr had not been knocked out or even knocked down, booed the decision." It seems the crowd believed that referee Arthur Donovan, Sr. had raised Farr's glove in victory. Seven years later, in his published account of the fight, Donovan spoke of the "mistake" that may have led to this confusion. He wrote: As Tommy walked back to his corner after shaking Louis' hand, I followed him and seized his glove. "Tommy, a wonderful perform—" I began ... Then I dropped his hand like a red-hot coal! He had started to raise his arm. He thought I had given him the fight and the world championship! I literally ran away, shaking my head and shouting. "No! No! No!" realising how I had raised his hopes for a few seconds only to dash them to the ground ... That's the last time my emotions will get the better of me in a prize fight! There was much booing at the announced result, but, as I say it, it was all emotional. I gave Tommy two rounds and one even—and both his winning rounds were close.[49] Speaking over the radio after the fight, Louis admitted that he had been hurt twice.[50] In preparation for the inevitable rematch with Schmeling, Louis tuned up with bouts against Nathan Mann and Harry Thomas. Louis vs. Schmeling II Main article: Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling The rematch between Louis and Schmeling would become one of the most famous boxing matches of all time and is remembered as one of the major sports events of the 20th century.[35] Following his defeat of Louis in 1936, Schmeling had become a national hero in Germany. Schmeling's victory over an African American was touted by Nazi officials as proof of their doctrine of Aryan superiority. When the rematch was scheduled, Louis retreated to his boxing camp in New Jersey and trained incessantly for the fight. A few weeks before the bout, Louis visited the White House, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt told him, "Joe, we need muscles like yours to beat Germany."[35] Louis later admitted: "I knew I had to get Schmeling good. I had my own personal reasons and the whole damned country was depending on me."[51] When Schmeling arrived in New York City in June 1938 for the rematch, he was accompanied by a Nazi party publicist who issued statements that a black man could not defeat Schmeling and that when Schmeling won, his prize money would be used to build tanks in Germany. Schmeling's hotel was picketed by anti-Nazi protesters in the days before the fight.[35] On the night of June 22, 1938, Louis and Schmeling met for the second time in the boxing ring. The fight was held in Yankee Stadium before a crowd of 70,043. It was broadcast by radio to millions of listeners throughout the world (including 58% of radio-equipped U.S. households[52]), with radio announcers reporting on the fight in English, German, Spanish, and Portuguese. Before the bout, Schmeling weighed in at 193 pounds; Louis weighed in at 198¾ pounds.[35] The fight lasted two minutes and four seconds.[53] Louis battered Schmeling with a series of swift attacks, forcing him against the ropes and giving him a paralyzing body blow (Schmeling afterward claimed it was an illegal kidney punch). Schmeling was knocked down three times and only managed to throw two punches in the entire bout. On the third knockdown, Schmeling's trainer threw in the towel and referee Arthur Donovan stopped the fight.[35] Well-established as one of the most significant boxing matches in history, [54][55][56] the fight has been widely regarded as among the most important or historic sports events of all time.[57][58][59][56][60] It was the first time that many white Americans openly cheered for a black man against a white opponent.[61] "Bum of the Month Club" In the 29 months from January 1939 through May 1941, Louis defended his title thirteen times, a frequency unmatched by any heavyweight champion since the end of the bare-knuckle era. The pace of his title defenses, combined with his convincing wins, earned Louis's opponents from this era the collective nickname "Bum of the Month Club".[26] Notables of this lambasted pantheon include: world light heavyweight champion John Henry Lewis who, attempting to move up a weight class, was knocked out in the first round by Louis on January 25, 1939.[62] "Two Ton" Tony Galento, who was able to knock Louis to the canvas with a left hook in the third round of their bout on June 28, 1939, before letting his guard down and being knocked out in the fourth.[62] Chilean Arturo Godoy, whom Louis fought twice in 1940, on February 9 and June 20. Louis won the first bout by a split-decision, and the rematch by a knockout in the eighth round.[62] Al McCoy, putative New England heavyweight champion, whose fight against Louis is probably best known for being the first heavyweight title bout held in Boston, Massachusetts, (at the Boston Garden on December 16, 1940). The popular local challenger dodged his way around Louis before being unable to respond to the sixth-round bell.[62] Clarence "Red" Burman, who pressed Louis for nearly five rounds at Madison Square Garden on January 31, 1941, before succumbing to a series of body blows.[62] Gus Dorazio, of whom Louis remarked, "At least he tried", after being leveled by a short right hand in the second round at Philadelphia's Convention Hall on February 17.[62] Abe Simon, who endured thirteen rounds of punishment before 18,908 at Olympia Stadium in Detroit on March 21 before referee Sam Hennessy declared a TKO. Tony Musto, who, at 5'7½" and 198 pounds, was known as "Baby Tank". Despite a unique crouching style, Musto was slowly worn down over eight and a half rounds in St. Louis on April 8, and the fight was called a TKO because of a severe cut over Musto's eye.[62][63] Buddy Baer (brother of former champion Max), who was leading the May 23, 1941, bout in Washington, D.C., until an eventual barrage by Louis, capped by a hit at the sixth round bell. Referee Arthur Donovan disqualified Baer before the beginning of the seventh round as a result of stalling by Baer's manager.[62] Despite its derogatory nickname, most of the group were top-ten heavyweights. Of the 12 fighters Louis faced during this period, five were rated by The Ring as top-10 heavyweights in the year they fought Louis: Galento (overall #2 heavyweight in 1939), Bob Pastor (#3, 1939), Godoy (#3, 1940), Simon (#6, 1941) and Baer (#8, 1941); four others (Musto, Dorazio, Burman and Johnny Paychek) were ranked in the top 10 in a different year.[64] Billy Conn fight Louis's string of lightly regarded competition ended with his bout against Billy Conn, the light heavyweight champion and a highly regarded contender. The fighters met on June 18, 1941, in front of a crowd of 54,487 fans at the Polo Grounds in New York City.[65] The fight turned out to be what is commonly considered one of the greatest heavyweight boxing fights of all time.[citation needed] Conn would not gain weight for the challenge against Louis, saying instead that he would rely on a "hit and run" strategy. This prompted Louis's famous response: "He can run, but he can't hide."[14][66] However, Louis had clearly underestimated Conn's threat. In his autobiography, Joe Louis said: I made a mistake going into that fight. I knew Conn was kinda small and I didn't want them to say in the papers that I beat up on some little guy so the day before the fight I did a little roadwork to break a sweat and drank as little water as possible so I could weigh in under 200 pounds. Chappie was as mad as hell. But Conn was a clever fighter, he was like a mosquito, he'd sting and move.[65] Conn had the better of the fight through 12 rounds, although Louis was able to stun Conn with a left hook in the fifth, cutting his eye and nose. By the eighth round, Louis began suffering from dehydration. By the twelfth round, Louis was exhausted, with Conn ahead on two of three boxing scorecards. But against the advice of his corner, Conn continued to closely engage Louis in the later stages of the fight. Louis made the most of the opportunity, knocking Conn out with two seconds left in the thirteenth round.[65] The contest created an instant rivalry that Louis's career had lacked since the Schmeling era, and a rematch with Conn was planned for late 1942. The rematch had to be abruptly canceled, however, after Conn broke his hand in a much-publicized fight with his father-in-law, Major League ballplayer Jimmy "Greenfield" Smith.[67] By the time Conn was ready for the rematch, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place. World War II Louis fought a charity bout for the Navy Relief Society against his former opponent Buddy Baer on January 9, 1942, which raised $47,000 for the fund.[14] The next day, he volunteered to enlist as a private in the United States Army at Camp Upton, Long Island.[68][69] Newsreel cameras recorded his induction, including a staged scene in which a soldier-clerk asked, "What's your occupation?", to which Louis replied, "Fighting and let us at them Japs."[70] Another military charity bout on March 27, 1942, (against another former opponent, Abe Simon) netted $36,146.[14] Before the fight, Louis had spoken at a Relief Fund dinner, saying of the war effort, "We'll win, 'cause we're on God's side."[22] The media widely reported the comment, instigating a surge of popularity for Louis. Slowly, the press began to eliminate its stereotypical racial references when covering Louis and instead treated him as a sports hero.[22] Despite the public relations boon, Louis's charitable fights proved financially costly. Although he saw none of the roughly $90,000 raised by these and other charitable fights, the IRS later credited these amounts as taxable income paid to Louis.[71] After the war, the IRS pursued the issue. For basic training, Louis was assigned to a segregated cavalry unit based in Fort Riley, Kansas. The assignment was at the suggestion of his friend and lawyer Truman Gibson, who knew of Louis's love for horsemanship.[68] Gibson had previously become a civilian advisor to the War Department, in charge of investigating claims of harassment against black soldiers. Accordingly, Louis used this personal connection to help the cause of various black soldiers with whom he came into contact. In one noted episode, Louis contacted Gibson in order to facilitate the Officer Candidate School (OCS) applications of a group of black recruits at Fort Riley, which had been inexplicably delayed for several months.[72][73] Among the OCS applications Louis facilitated was that of a young UCLA athletic legend Jackie Robinson, later to break the baseball color barrier.[72][74] The episode spawned a personal friendship between the two men.[75] Realizing Louis's potential for raising esprit de corps among the troops, the Army placed him in its Special Services Division rather than sending him into combat.[69] Louis went on a celebrity tour with other notables, including fellow boxer Sugar Ray Robinson.[70] He traveled more than 35,000 km (22,000 mi) and staged 96 boxing exhibitions before two million soldiers.[14] In England during 1944, he was reported to have signed as a player for Liverpool Football Club as a publicity stunt.[76] Louis in the Army In addition to his travels, Louis was the focus of a media recruitment campaign encouraging African-American men to enlist in the Armed Services, despite the military's racial segregation. When he was asked about his decision to enter the racially segregated U.S. Army, he said: "Lots of things wrong with America, but Hitler ain't going to fix them." In 1943, Louis made an appearance in the wartime Hollywood musical This Is the Army, directed by Michael Curtiz. He appeared as himself in a musical number, "The Well-Dressed Man in Harlem," which emphasized the importance of African-American soldiers and promoted their enlistment. Louis's celebrity power was not, however, merely directed toward African Americans. In a famous wartime recruitment slogan, he echoed his prior comments of 1942: "We'll win, because we're on God's side." The publicity of the campaign made Louis widely popular stateside, even outside the world of sports.[2] Never before had white Americans embraced a black man as their representative to the world.[2] Although Louis never saw combat, his military service saw challenges of its own. During his travels, he often experienced blatant racism. On one occasion, a military policeman (MP) ordered Louis and Ray Robinson to move their seats to a bench in the rear of an Alabama Army camp bus depot. "We ain't moving", said Louis. The MP tried to arrest them, but Louis forcefully argued the pair out of the situation.[77] In another incident, he allegedly had to resort to exerting his influence, even bribery to persuade a commanding officer to drop charges against now Lt. Jackie Robinson, who had also resisted being told to move his seat on a southern bus, resulting in his punching a captain who had called Robinson a "nigger".[73] Louis was eventually promoted to the rank of technical sergeant on April 9, 1945. On September 23 of the same year, he was awarded the Legion of Merit (a military decoration rarely awarded to enlisted soldiers) for "incalculable contribution to the general morale".[69][78] Receipt of the honor qualified him for immediate release from military service on October 1, 1945.[14][79] Later career and retirement Louis emerged from his wartime service significantly in debt. In addition to his looming tax bill—which had not been finally determined at the time, but was estimated at greater than $100,000[70]—Jacobs claimed that Louis owed him $250,000.[80] Despite the financial pressure on Louis to resume boxing, his long-awaited rematch against Billy Conn had to be postponed to the summer of 1946, when weather conditions could accommodate a large outdoor audience. On June 19, a disappointing 40,000 saw the rematch at Yankee Stadium,[70] in which Louis was not seriously tested. Conn, whose skills had deteriorated during the long layoff, largely avoided contact until being dispatched by knockout in the eighth round. Although the attendance did not meet expectations, the fight was still the most profitable of Louis's career to date. His share of the purse was $600,000, of which Louis's managers got $140,000, his ex-wife $66,000 and the U.S. state of New York $30,000.[70] After trouble finding another suitable opponent, on December 5, 1947, Louis met Jersey Joe Walcott, a 33-year-old veteran with a 44–11–2 record. Walcott entered the fight as a 10-to-1 underdog. Nevertheless, Walcott knocked down Louis twice in the first four rounds. Most observers in Madison Square Garden felt Walcott dominated the 15-round fight. When Louis was declared the winner in a split decision, the crowd booed.[70] Louis was under no illusion about the state of his boxing skills, yet he was too embarrassed to quit after the Walcott fight. Determined to win and retire with his title intact, Louis signed on for a rematch. On June 25, 1948, about 42,000 people came to Yankee Stadium to see the aging champion, who weighed 213½ pounds, the heaviest of his career to date. Walcott knocked Louis down in the third round, but Louis survived to knock out Walcott in the eleventh.[70] Louis would not defend his title again before announcing his retirement from boxing on March 1, 1949.[81] In his bouts with Conn and Walcott, it had become apparent that Louis was no longer the fighter he had once been. As he had done earlier in his career, however, Louis would continue to appear in numerous exhibition matches worldwide.[14][81] In August 1949 Cab Calloway rendered homage to the “king of the ring” with his song Ol’ Joe Louis.[82] Post-retirement comeback At the time of Louis's initial retirement, the IRS was still completing its investigation of his prior tax returns, which had always been handled by Mike Jacobs's personal accountant.[83] In May 1950, the IRS finished a full audit of Louis's past returns and announced that, with interest and penalties, he owed the government more than $500,000.[70] Louis had no choice but to return to the ring. After asking Gibson to take over his personal finances and switching his management from Jacobs and Roxborough to Marshall Miles,[53][84] the Louis camp negotiated a deal with the IRS under which Louis would come out of retirement, with all Louis's net proceeds going to the IRS. A match with Ezzard Charles—who had acquired the vacant heavyweight title in June 1949 by outpointing Walcott—was set for September 27, 1950. By then, Louis was 36 years old and had been away from competitive boxing for two years. Weighing in at 218 pounds, Louis was still strong, but his reflexes were gone and Charles repeatedly beat him to the punch. By the end of the fight, Louis was cut above both eyes, one of which was shut tight by swelling.[53] He knew he had lost even before Charles was declared the winner. The result was not the only disappointing aspect of the fight for Louis; only 22,357 spectators paid to witness the event at Yankee Stadium, and his share of the purse was a mere $100,458.[53] Louis had to continue fighting. After facing several club-level opponents and scoring an early knockout victory over EBU champion Lee Savold (also defeating top contender Jimmy Bivins by unanimous decision), the International Boxing Club guaranteed Louis $300,000 to face undefeated heavyweight contender Rocky Marciano on October 26, 1951.[70] Despite his being a 6-to-5 favorite, few boxing insiders believed Louis had a chance.[85] Marciano himself was reluctant to participate in the bout, but was understanding of Louis's position: "This is the last guy on earth I want to fight."[86] It was feared, particularly among those who had witnessed Marciano's punching power first-hand, that Louis's unwillingness to quit would result in serious injury. Fighting back tears, Ferdie Pacheco said in the SportsCentury documentary about Louis's bout with Marciano, "He [Louis] wasn't just going to lose. He was going to take a vicious, savage beating. Before the eyes of the nation, Joe Louis, an American hero if ever there was one, was going to get beaten up."[87] Louis was dropped in the eighth round by a Marciano left and knocked through the ropes and out of the ring less than thirty seconds later. In the dressing room after the fight, Louis's Army touring companion, Sugar Ray Robinson, wept. Marciano also attempted to console Louis, saying, "I'm sorry, Joe."[70] "What's the use of crying?" Louis said. "The better man won. I guess everything happens for the best."[70] After facing Marciano, with the prospect of another significant payday all but gone, Louis retired for good from professional boxing. He would, as before, continue to tour on the exhibition circuit, with his last contest taking place on December 16, 1951, in Taipei, Taiwan, against Corporal Buford J. deCordova.[14][81] Taxes and financial troubles Despite Louis's lucrative purses over the years, most of the proceeds went to his handlers. Of the over $4.6 million earned during his boxing career, Louis himself received only about $800,000.[14] Louis was nevertheless extremely generous to his family, paying for homes, cars and education for his parents and siblings,[88] often with money fronted by Jacobs.[89] He invested in a number of businesses, all of which eventually failed,[88] including the Joe Louis Restaurant, the Joe Louis Insurance Company, a softball team called the Brown Bombers, the Joe Louis Milk Company, Joe Louis pomade (hair product), Joe Louis Punch (a drink), the Louis-Rower P.R. firm, a horse farm and the Rhumboogie Café in Chicago.[90] He gave liberally to the government as well, paying back the city of Detroit for any welfare money his family had received.[88] Louis and Max Schmeling, 1971. The former rivals became close friends in later life. A combination of this largesse and government intervention eventually put Louis in severe financial straits. His entrusting of his finances to former manager Mike Jacobs haunted him. After the $500,000 IRS tax bill was assessed, with interest accumulating every year, the need for cash precipitated Louis's post-retirement comeback.[70][91] Even though his comeback earned him significant purses, the incremental tax rate in place at the time (90%) meant that these boxing proceeds did not even keep pace with interest on Louis's tax debt. As a result, by the end of the 1950s, he owed over $1 million in taxes and interest.[91] In 1953, when Louis's mother died, the IRS appropriated the $667 she had willed to Louis.[70] To bring in money, Louis engaged in numerous activities outside the ring. He appeared on various quiz shows,[91] and an old Army friend, Ash Resnick, gave Louis a job greeting tourists to the Caesars Palace hotel in Las Vegas, where Resnick was an executive.[91] For income, Louis even became a professional wrestler. He made his professional wrestling debut on March 16, 1956 in Washington, D.C. at the Uline Arena, defeating Cowboy Rocky Lee. After defeating Lee in a few matches, Louis discovered he had a heart ailment and retired from wrestling competition. However, he continued as a wrestling referee until 1972.[70][92] Louis remained a popular celebrity in his twilight years. His friends included former rival Max Schmeling, who provided Louis with financial assistance during his retirement[93]—and mobster Frank Lucas, who, disgusted with the government's treatment of Louis, once paid off a $50,000 tax lien held against him.[94] These payments, along with an eventual agreement in the early 1960s by the IRS to limit its collections to an amount based on Louis's current income,[70] allowed Louis to live comfortably toward the end of his life.[88] After the Louis-Schmeling fight, Jack Dempsey expressed the opinion that he was glad he never had to face Joe Louis in the ring. When Louis fell on hard financial times, Dempsey served as honorary chairman of a fund to assist Louis.[95] Professional golf One of Louis's other passions was the game of golf, in which he also played a historic role. He was a long-time devotee of the sport since being introduced to the game before the first Schmeling fight in 1936. In 1952, Louis was invited to play as an amateur in the San Diego Open on a sponsor's exemption, becoming the first African American to play a PGA Tour event.[4][5] Initially, the PGA of America was reluctant to allow Louis to enter the event, having a bylaw at the time limiting PGA membership to Caucasians.[3] Louis's celebrity status eventually pushed the PGA toward removing the bylaw, although the "Caucasian only" clause in the PGA of America's constitution was not amended until November 1961.[96][97] The change, however, paved the way for the first generation of African-American professional golfers such as Calvin Peete.[3] Louis himself financially supported the careers of several other early black professional golfers, such as Bill Spiller, Ted Rhodes, Howard Wheeler, James Black, Clyde Martin and Charlie Sifford.[4] He was also instrumental in founding The First Tee, a charity helping underprivileged children become acquainted with the game of golf.[3] His son, Joe Louis Barrow, Jr., currently oversees the organization.[4] In 2009, the PGA of America granted posthumous membership to Ted Rhodes, John Shippen and Bill Spiller, who were denied the opportunity to become PGA members during their professional careers. The PGA also has granted posthumous honorary membership to Louis.[98] Personal life and death “I did the best I could with what I had.” — Joe Louis (cited by Philip Roth)[99] Joe Louis with Jean Anderson, Chicago, 1947 Louis had two children by wife Marva Trotter (daughter Jacqueline in 1943 and son Joseph Louis Barrow Jr. in 1947). They divorced in March 1945 only to remarry a year later, but were again divorced in February 1949.[70][100] Marva moved on to an acting and modeling career.[78][101] On Christmas Day 1955, Louis married Rose Morgan, a successful Harlem businesswoman; their marriage was annulled in 1958.[100] Louis's final marriage—to Martha Jefferson, a lawyer from Los Angeles, on St. Patrick's Day 1959—lasted until his death. They had four children: another son named Joseph Louis Barrow Jr, John Louis Barrow, Joyce Louis Barrow, and Janet Louis Barrow. The younger Joe Louis Barrow Jr. lives in New York City and is involved in boxing.[88][100] Though married four times, Louis discreetly enjoyed the company of other women like Lena Horne and Edna Mae Harris. Joe Louis' headstone in Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia Joe and Marva Louis endorsed and campaigned for liberal, anti-segregation Republican candidate Wendell Willkie in the 1940 United States presidential election.[102][103] Louis said: This country has been good to me. It gave me everything I have. I have never come out for any candidate before but I think Wendell L. Willkie will give us a square deal. So I am for Willkie because I think he will help my people, and I figure my people should be for him, too.[104] Drugs took a toll on Louis in his later years. In 1969, he was hospitalized after collapsing on a New York City street. While the incident was at first credited to "physical breakdown,"[100] underlying problems would soon surface. In 1970, he spent five months at the Colorado Psychiatric Hospital and the Veterans Administration Hospital in Denver, hospitalized by his wife, Martha, and his son, Joe Louis Barrow Jr., for paranoia.[100] In a 1971 book, Brown Bomber, by Barney Nagler, Louis disclosed the truth about these incidents, stating that his collapse in 1969 had been caused by cocaine, and that his subsequent hospitalization had been prompted by his fear of a plot to destroy him.[100] Strokes and heart ailments caused Louis's condition to deteriorate further later in the decade. He had surgery to correct an aortic aneurysm in 1977 and thereafter used a POV/scooter for a mobility aid.[14][105] Louis died of cardiac arrest in Desert Springs Hospital near Las Vegas on April 12, 1981, just hours after his last public appearance viewing the Larry Holmes–Trevor Berbick Heavyweight Championship. Ronald Reagan waived the eligibility rules for burial at Arlington National Cemetery and Louis was buried there with full military honors on April 21, 1981.[106] His funeral was paid for in part by former competitor and friend, Max Schmeling,[107] who also acted as a pallbearer. Film and television [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2019) Louis appeared in six full-length films and two shorts, including a starring role in the 1938 race film Spirit of Youth, in which he played a boxer with many similarities to himself. He was a guest on the television show You Bet Your Life in 1955. In 1943, he was featured in the full-length movie This is the Army, which starred Ronald Reagan, with appearances by Kate Smith singing "God Bless America" and Irving Berlin, and which was directed by Michael Curtiz. In 1953, Robert Gordon directed a movie about Louis's life, The Joe Louis Story. Filmed in Hollywood, it starred Golden Gloves fighter and Louis lookalike Coley Wallace in the title role.[108] The film suffered from low budget and production values, sluggishly intercutting clips from Louis’s actual bouts with indifferent audio sync. Legacy Congressional Gold Medal in 1982 Louis is widely regarded as one of the greatest boxers of all time. He reigned as the world heavyweight champion from 1937 to 1949, during which he participated in 26 championship fights, defeated 21 fighters,[109][110] made 25 defenses and was a world champion for 11 years and 10 months. The latter two are still records in the heavyweight division, the former in any division.[111] Louis has won the most world heavyweight title fights in history, at 26.[112][113][114] His most remarkable record is that he knocked out 23 opponents in 27 title fights, including five world champions.[115] In addition to his accomplishments inside the ring, Louis uttered two of boxing's most famous observations: "He can run, but he can't hide" and "Everyone has a plan until they've been hit."[14][116] Louis was named fighter of the year four times by The Ring magazine in 1936, 1938, 1939, and 1941. His fights with Max Baer, Max Schmeling, Tommy Farr, Bob Pastor and Billy Conn were named fight of the year by that same magazine. Louis won the Sugar Ray Robinson Award in 1941. In 2005, Louis was ranked as the best heavyweight of all time by the International Boxing Research Organization,[117] and was ranked number one on The Ring magazine's list of the "100 greatest punchers of all time".[118][119][120] Louis is also remembered in sports outside of boxing. A former indoor sports venue was named after him in Detroit, the Joe Louis Arena, where the Detroit Red Wings played their NHL games from 1979 to 2017.[121] In 1936, Vince Leah, then a writer for the Winnipeg Tribune used Joe Louis's nickname to refer to the Winnipeg Football Club after a game. From that point, the team became known popularly as the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.[122] His recognition also transcends the sporting world. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Joe Louis on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[123] On August 26, 1982, Louis was posthumously approved for the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award given to civilians by the U.S. legislative branch.[124] Congress stated that he "did so much to bolster the spirit of the American people during one of the most crucial times in American history and which have endured throughout the years as a symbol of strength for the nation".[125] Following Louis's death, President Ronald Reagan said, "Joe Louis was more than a sports legend—his career was an indictment of racial bigotry and a source of pride and inspiration to millions of white and black people around the world."[126] Detroit Monument A memorial to Louis was dedicated in Detroit (at Jefferson Avenue and Woodward) on October 16, 1986. The sculpture, commissioned by Time, Inc. and executed by Robert Graham, is a 24-foot-long (7.3 m) arm with a fisted hand suspended by a 24-foot-high (7.3 m) pyramidal framework. It represents the power of his punch both inside and outside the ring.[127] In an interview with Arsenio Hall in the late 1980s, former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali stated that his two biggest influences in boxing were Sugar Ray Robinson and Joe Louis.[128] On February 27, 2010, an 8-foot (2.4 m) bronze statue of Louis was unveiled in his Alabama hometown. The statue, by sculptor Casey Downing, Jr., sits on a base of red granite outside the Chambers County Courthouse.[129] In 1993, he became the first boxer to be honored on a postage stamp issued by the U.S. Postal Service.[130] Various other facilities have been named after Joe Louis. In 1984, the four streets surrounding Madison Square Garden were named Joe Louis Plaza in his honor. The former Pipe O' Peace Golf Course in Riverdale, Illinois (a Chicago suburb), was in 1986 renamed "Joe Louis The Champ Golf Course".[131] American Legion Post 375 in Detroit is also named after Joe Louis. Completed in 1979 at a cost of $4 million, Joe Louis Arena, nicknamed The Joe, was a hockey arena located in downtown Detroit. It was the home of the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League from 1979 until 2017. The planned demolition of the Arena prompted the City of Detroit in 2017 to rename the Inner Circle Greenway as the Joe Louis Greenway. When completed, this 39-mile (63 km) biking and walking trail will pass through the cities of Detroit, Hamtramck, Highland Park, and Dearborn.[132] In one of the most widely quoted tributes to Louis, New York Post sportswriter Jimmy Cannon, when responding to another person's characterization of Louis as "a credit to his race", stated, "Yes, Joe Louis is a credit to his race—the human race."[133] Joe Louis trained at the site of the Pompton Lakes (NJ) Elks Club. When he won one of his fights, he donated the first ambulance to the Pompton Lakes First Aid Squad. Cultural references This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Joe Louis" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In his heyday, Louis was the subject of many musical tributes, including a number of blues songs.[134] Louis was portrayed by actor Bari K. Willerford in the film American Gangster. In 2009, the Brooklyn band Yeasayer debuted the single "Ambling Alp" from their forthcoming album Odd Blood, which imagines what advice Joe Louis's father might have given him prior to becoming a prizefighter. The song makes reference to Louis's boxing career and his famous rivalry with Schmeling in the first person, with the lyrics such as "Oh, Max Schmeling was a formidable foe / The Ambling Alp was too, at least that's what I'm told / But if you learn one thing, you've learned it well / In June, you must give fascists hell."[135][136] An opera based on his life, Shadowboxer, premiered on April 17, 2010.[137] The aforementioned sculpture of Louis's fist (see Legacy above) was one of several Detroit landmarks depicted in "Imported from Detroit", a two-minute commercial for the Chrysler 200 featuring Eminem that aired during Super Bowl XLV in 2011. Louis is the inspiration behind Jesse Jagz's eponymous song from the album Jagz Nation Vol. 2: Royal Niger Company (2014).[138] The first track from John Squire's 2002 debut LP Time Changes Everything is titled "Joe Louis", and the lyrics include references to his boxing and army career. A picture of Joe Louis fighting Max Schmeling is seen in one of the final scenes of the movie Inside Man. Professional boxing record Professional record summary  69 fights 66 wins 3 losses By knockout 52 2 By decision 13 1 By disqualification 1 0 No. Result Record Opponent Type Round, time Date Age Location Notes 69 Loss 66–3 Rocky Marciano TKO 8 (10) Oct 26, 1951 37 years, 166 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 68 Win 66–2 Jimmy Bivins UD 10 Aug 15, 1951 37 years, 94 days Memorial Stadium, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. 67 Win 65–2 Cesar Brion UD 10 Aug 1, 1951 37 years, 80 days Cow Palace, Daly City, California, U.S. 66 Win 64–2 Lee Savold KO 6 (15), 2:29 Jun 15, 1951 37 years, 33 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 65 Win 63–2 Omelio Agramonte UD 10 May 2, 1951 36 years, 354 days Olympia, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. 64 Win 62–2 Andy Walker TKO 10 (10), 1:49 Feb 23, 1951 36 years, 286 days Cow Palace, Daly City, California, U.S. 63 Win 61–2 Omelio Agramonte UD 10 Feb 7, 1951 36 years, 270 days Miami Stadium, Miami, Florida, U.S. 62 Win 60–2 Freddie Beshore TKO 4 (10), 2:48 Jan 3, 1951 36 years, 235 days Olympia, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. 61 Win 59–2 Cesar Brion UD 10 Nov 29, 1950 36 years, 200 days Chicago Stadium, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 60 Loss 58–2 Ezzard Charles UD 15 Sep 27, 1950 36 years, 137 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. For NBA, vacant NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight titles 59 Win 58–1 Jersey Joe Walcott KO 11 (15) Jun 25, 1948 34 years, 43 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 58 Win 57–1 Jersey Joe Walcott SD 15 Dec 5, 1947 33 years, 206 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 57 Win 56–1 Tami Mauriello KO 1 (15), 2:09 Sep 18, 1946 32 years, 128 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 56 Win 55–1 Billy Conn KO 8 (15), 2:19 Jun 19, 1946 32 years, 37 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 55 Win 54–1 Johnny Davis TKO 1 (4), 0:53 Nov 14, 1944 30 years, 185 days Memorial Auditorium, Buffalo, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC and The Ring heavyweight titles 54 Win 53–1 Abe Simon TKO 6 (15), 0:16 Mar 27, 1942 27 years, 318 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 53 Win 52–1 Buddy Baer KO 1 (15), 2:56 Jan 9, 1942 27 years, 241 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 52 Win 51–1 Lou Nova TKO 6 (15), 2:59 Sep 29, 1941 27 years, 139 days Polo Grounds, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 51 Win 50–1 Billy Conn KO 13 (15), 2:58 Jun 18, 1941 27 years, 36 days Polo Grounds, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 50 Win 49–1 Buddy Baer DQ 7 (15), 3:00 May 23, 1941 27 years, 10 days Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., U.S. Retained NBA, NYSAC, and The Ring heavyweight titles; Baer disqualified after his manager refused to leave the ring 49 Win 48–1 Tony Musto TKO 9 (15), 1:36 Apr 8, 1941 26 years, 330 days St. Louis Arena, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 48 Win 47–1 Abe Simon TKO 13 (20), 1:20 Mar 21, 1941 26 years, 312 days Olympia, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 47 Win 46–1 Gus Dorazio KO 2 (15), 1:30 Feb 17, 1941 26 years, 280 days Convention Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 46 Win 45–1 Red Burman KO 5 (15), 2:49 Jan 31, 1941 26 years, 263 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 45 Win 44–1 Al McCoy RTD 5 (15), 3:00 Dec 16, 1940 26 years, 217 days Boston Garden, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 44 Win 43–1 Arturo Godoy TKO 8 (15), 1:24 Jun 20, 1940 26 years, 38 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 43 Win 42–1 Johnny Paychek TKO 2 (15), 0:41 Mar 29, 1940 25 years, 321 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 42 Win 41–1 Arturo Godoy SD 15 Feb 9, 1940 25 years, 272 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 41 Win 40–1 Bob Pastor KO 11 (20), 0:38 Sep 20, 1939 25 years, 130 days Briggs Stadium, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 40 Win 39–1 Tony Galento TKO 4 (15), 2:29 Jun 28, 1939 25 years, 46 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 39 Win 38–1 Jack Roper KO 1 (10), 2:20 Apr 17, 1939 24 years, 339 days Wrigley Field, Los Angeles, California, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 38 Win 37–1 John Henry Lewis KO 1 (15), 2:29 Jan 25, 1939 24 years, 257 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 37 Win 36–1 Max Schmeling KO 1 (15), 2:04 Jun 22, 1938 24 years, 40 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 36 Win 35–1 Harry Thomas KO 5 (15), 2:50 Apr 4, 1938 23 years, 326 days Chicago Stadium, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. Retained NBA and The Ring heavyweight titles[139][140] 35 Win 34–1 Nathan Mann KO 3 (15), 1:36 Feb 23, 1938 23 years, 314 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 34 Win 33–1 Tommy Farr UD 15 Aug 30, 1937 23 years, 109 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. Retained NYSAC and The Ring heavyweight titles 33 Win 32–1 James J. Braddock KO 8 (15) Jun 22, 1937 23 years, 40 days Comiskey Park, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. Won NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles 32 Win 31–1 Natie Brown KO 4 (10), 0:52 Feb 17, 1937 22 years, 280 days Municipal Auditorium, Kansas City, Missouri, U.S. 31 Win 30–1 Bob Pastor UD 10 Jan 29, 1937 22 years, 261 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 30 Win 29–1 Steve Ketchel KO 2 (4), 0:31 Jan 11, 1937 22 years, 243 days Broadway Auditorium, Buffalo, New York, U.S. 29 Win 28–1 Eddie Simms TKO 1 (10), 0:26 Dec 14, 1936 22 years, 215 days Public Auditorium, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. 28 Win 27–1 Jorge Brescia KO 3 (10), 2:12 Oct 9, 1936 22 years, 149 days Hippodrome Theatre, New York City, New York, U.S. 27 Win 26–1 Al Ettore KO 5 (15), 1:28 Sep 22, 1936 22 years, 132 days Municipal Stadium, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 26 Win 25–1 Jack Sharkey KO 3 (10), 1:02 Aug 18, 1936 22 years, 97 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. 25 Loss 24–1 Max Schmeling KO 12 (15), 2:29 Jun 19, 1936 22 years, 37 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. 24 Win 24–0 Charley Retzlaff KO 1 (15), 1:25 Jan 17, 1936 21 years, 249 days Chicago Stadium, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 23 Win 23–0 Paulino Uzcudun TKO 4 (15), 2:32 Dec 13, 1935 21 years, 214 days Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S. 22 Win 22–0 Max Baer KO 4 (15), 3:09 Sep 24, 1935 21 years, 134 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. 21 Win 21–0 King Levinsky TKO 1 (10), 2:21 Aug 7, 1935 21 years, 86 days Comiskey Park, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 20 Win 20–0 Primo Carnera TKO 6 (15), 2:32 Jun 25, 1935 21 years, 43 days Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S. 19 Win 19–0 Biff Bennett KO 1 (6), 1:15 Apr 22, 1935 20 years, 344 days Memorial Hall, Dayton, Ohio, U.S. 18 Win 18–0 Roy Lazer KO 3 (10), 2:28 Apr 12, 1935 20 years, 334 days Chicago Stadium, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 17 Win 17–0 Natie Brown UD 10 Mar 29, 1935 20 years, 320 days Olympia, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. 16 Win 16–0 Don "Red" Barry TKO 3 (10), 1:30 Mar 8, 1935 20 years, 299 days New Dreamland Auditorium, San Francisco, California, U.S. 15 Win 15–0 Lee Ramage TKO 2 (10), 2:11 Feb 21, 1935 20 years, 284 days Wrigley Field, Los Angeles, California, U.S. 14 Win 14–0 Hans Birkie TKO 10 (10), 1:47 Jan 11, 1935 20 years, 243 days Duquesne Gardens, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. 13 Win 13–0 Patsy Perroni PTS 10 Jan 4, 1935 20 years, 236 days Olympia, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. 12 Win 12–0 Lee Ramage TKO 8 (10), 2:51 Dec 14, 1934 20 years, 215 days Chicago Stadium, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 11 Win 11–0 Charley Massera KO 3 (10), 2:41 Nov 30, 1934 20 years, 201 days Coliseum, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 10 Win 10–0 Stanley Poreda KO 1 (10), 2:40 Nov 14, 1934 20 years, 185 days Arcadia Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 9 Win 9–0 Jack O'Dowd KO 2 (10) Oct 31, 1934 20 years, 171 days Arcadia Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 8 Win 8–0 Art Sykes KO 8 (10) Oct 24, 1934 20 years, 164 days Arcadia Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 7 Win 7–0 Adolph Wiater PTS 10 Sep 26, 1934 20 years, 136 days Arcadia Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 6 Win 6–0 Al Delaney TKO 4 (10) Sep 11, 1934 20 years, 121 days Naval Armory, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. 5 Win 5–0 Buck Everett KO 2 (8) Aug 27, 1934 20 years, 106 days Marigold Gardens Outdoor Arena, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 4 Win 4–0 Jack Kranz UD 8 Aug 13, 1934 20 years, 92 days Marigold Gardens Outdoor Arena, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 3 Win 3–0 Larry Udell TKO 2 (8) Jul 30, 1934 20 years, 78 days Marigold Gardens Outdoor Arena, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 2 Win 2–0 Willie Davies TKO 3 (6) Jul 12, 1934 20 years, 60 days Bacon's Arena, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. 1 Win 1–0 Jack Kracken KO 1 (6) Jul 7, 1934 20 years, 55 days Bacon's Arena, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. Jersey Joe Walcott, original name Arnold Raymond Cream, (born Jan. 31, 1914, Merchantville, N.J., U.S.—died Feb. 25, 1994, Camden, N.J.), American world heavyweight boxing champion from July 18, 1951, when he knocked out Ezzard Charles in seven rounds in Pittsburgh, Pa., until Sept. 23, 1952, when he was knocked out by Rocky Marciano in 13 rounds in Philadelphia. The son of immigrants from Barbados, Walcott became a professional boxer in 1930. He won the heavyweight title in 1951 only after losing two title bouts to the aging Joe Louis (including a controversial decision in New York City on Dec. 5, 1947) and two to Ezzard Charles. He was 37 years old when he knocked out Charles to become heavyweight champion. Between 1930 and 1953, Walcott had 69 professional bouts, winning 50, of which 30 were by knockouts. His bout with Marciano in 1952 was considered one of the most exciting heavyweight championship fights of all time. After retiring from the ring, Walcott organized youth programs and served as a sheriff and athletic commissioner in New Jersey. He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1991. Joe Louis, byname of Joseph Louis Barrow, also called the Brown Bomber, (born May 13, 1914, Lafayette, Alabama, U.S.—died April 12, 1981, Las Vegas, Nevada), American boxer who was world heavyweight champion from June 22, 1937, when he knocked out James J. Braddock in eight rounds in Chicago, until March 1, 1949, when he briefly retired. During his reign, the longest in the history of any weight division, he successfully defended his title 25 times, more than any other champion in any division, scoring 21 knockouts (his service in the U.S. Army from 1942 to 1945 no doubt prevented him from defending his title many more times). He was known as an extremely accurate and economical knockout puncher. Louis’s father, a sharecropper, was committed to a state mental hospital when Louis was about two years old. After his mother remarried, the family, which included eight children, moved to Detroit, Michigan, where Louis took up amateur boxing. He won the U.S. Amateur Athletic Union 175-pound championship in 1934 and also was a Golden Gloves titleholder; of 54 amateur fights, Louis won 50 and lost 4. His first professional fight took place on July 4, 1934, and within 12 months he had knocked out Primo Carnera, the first of six previous or subsequent heavyweight champions who would become his victims; the others were Max Baer, Jack Sharkey, Braddock, the German champion Max Schmeling, and Jersey Joe Walcott. Louis sustained his first professional loss in 1936 at the hands of Schmeling. In 1938, after having beaten Braddock and taken the title, Louis met Schmeling in a rematch that the American media portrayed as a battle between Nazism and democracy (though Schmeling himself was not a Nazi). Louis’s dramatic knockout victory in the first round made him a national hero. He was perhaps the first Black American to be widely admired by whites, a fact attributable not only to his extraordinary pugilistic skills but also to his sportsmanlike behaviour in the ring (he did not gloat over his white opponents), his perceived humility and soft-spoken demeanour, and his discretion in his private life. Joe Louis and Max Schmeling Joe Louis and Max Schmeling Joe Louis (left) and Max Schmeling at a photo session prior to their heavyweight world championship bout in 1938. AP Images Louis was at his peak in the period 1939–42. From December 1940 through June 1941 he defended the championship seven times. After enlisting in the U.S. Army in 1942, he served in a segregated unit with Jackie Robinson, who later became the first African American to play major league baseball. Louis did not see combat but fought in 96 exhibition matches before some two million troops; he also donated more than $100,000 to Army and Navy relief funds. After the war he was less active, and in 1949 he retired as the undefeated champion long enough to allow Ezzard Charles to earn recognition as his successor. Although Louis earned nearly $5 million as a fighter, he spent or gave away nearly all of it. When the Internal Revenue Service demanded more than $1 million in back taxes and penalties, he was forced to return to the ring to pay off his debts. He fought Charles for the championship on September 27, 1950, but lost a 15-round decision. In his last fight of consequence, against future champion Rocky Marciano on October 26, 1951, he was knocked out in eight rounds. From 1934 to 1951, Louis had 71 bouts, winning 68, 54 by knockouts. A Hollywood movie about his life, The Joe Louis Story, was made in 1953. After his second retirement Louis continued to be plagued by money problems, and he was briefly forced to work as a professional wrestler. Later he became a greeter for Caesar’s Palace, a resort and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. Upon his death in 1981 he was buried in Arlington National Cemetery; one of the pallbearers at his funeral was Schmeling. Louis remained a Detroit icon after his death: the Joe Louis Arena was home to the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League from 1979 to 2017, and a well-known public monument to Louis (a 24-foot [7.3-metre] arm with a clenched fist suspended in pyramidal frame) was erected in downtown Detroit in 1986. Louis was inducted into the Ring Magazine Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954 and the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990. He was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 1982. African American boxer Joe Louis, who reigned as world heavyweight champion from 1937 until 1949, is regarded as one of his sport's all-time greats. Who Was Joe Louis? Joe Louis became boxing's heavyweight champion with his defeat of James J. Braddock in 1937. Nicknamed the "Brown Bomber," his knockout of Germany's Max Schmeling in 1938 made him a national hero, and he established a record by retaining the championship for nearly 12 years. After boxing, Louis endured financial problems while working as a referee and a casino greeter. He died of cardiac arrest in 1981. Early Years Joseph Louis Barrow was born on May 13, 1914, in a shack outside of Lafayette, Alabama. The grandson of enslaved people, he was the seventh of eight children born to a sharecropper father, Munn, and wife Lillie, a laundress. Louis' early life was shaped by financial struggles. He and his siblings slept three and four to a bed, and Louis was just 2 years old when his father was committed to an asylum. Shy and quiet, his development was stymied by limited education, and he eventually developed a stammer. Not long after Lillie Barrow remarried, to widower Patrick Brooks, the family migrated north to Detroit. Louis attended the Bronson Trade School, where he trained as a cabinet maker, but was soon forced to take on odd jobs after Brooks lost his job with the Ford Motor Company. READ NEXT Olivia Rodrigo Olivia Rodrigo (2003–) Megan Thee Stallion Megan Thee Stallion (1995–) Bowen Yang Bowen Yang (1990–) After Louis began hanging out with a local gang, Lillie sought to keep her son out of trouble by having him take violin lessons. However, Louis had also been introduced to boxing by a friend; he began using the violin money to train at Brewster Recreation Center. Amateur Success Fighting under the name "Joe Louis," reportedly so his mother wouldn't find out, Louis began his amateur career in late 1932. While not an immediate success — he was floored several times by 1932 Olympian Johnny Miler in his debut — Louis soon proved he could hit harder than anybody else. His all-around skills eventually caught up to his punching power, and in 1934 he won Detroit's Golden Gloves light-heavyweight title in the open class and the national Amateur Athletic Union championship. He wrapped up his amateur career with 50 wins in 54 matches, 43 of them by knockout.  Pro Beginnings and Loss to Schmeling Louis hit the ground running as a professional in 1934, obliterating opponents with his powerful jab and devastating combos. By the end of 1935, the young fighter had already dispatched former heavyweight champions Primo Carnera and Max Baer, accumulating some $370,000 in prize money along the way. However, he reportedly did not train hard for his first fight against former heavyweight champion Max Schmeling of Germany, and on June 19, 1936, Schmeling scored a 12th-round knockout to hand Louis his first professional defeat. Defeat of Braddock for Heavyweight Title On June 22, 1937, Louis was given the chance to fight James J. Braddock for the heavyweight championship. Later the subject of Ron Howard's 2005 film Cinderella Man, Braddock was renowned for his perseverance, but after knocking Louis down early, he was outclassed by his younger, stronger opponent. The "Brown Bomber" battered Braddock in the middle rounds, until finishing him with an eighth-round knockout to claim the heavyweight crown. Schmeling Rematch On June 22, 1938, Louis got the chance at a rematch with Schmeling. This time the stakes were higher: With Schmeling hailed as an example of Aryan supremacy by Adolph Hitler, the bout took on heightened nationalistic and racial overtones. This time Louis annihilated his German opponent with a first-round knockout, making him a hero to both Black and white Americans. Run as Heavyweight Champ One of the world's best-known athletes, Louis' enduring popularity was partly due to his sheer dominance: Of his 25 successful title defenses, nearly all came by knockout. But in winning, Louis also showed himself to be a gracious, even generous victor. He also drew praise for his support of the country's war effort, as he enlisted in the U.S. Army in 1942 and donated the prize money to military relief funds. After reigning as heavyweight champion for 11 years and eight months, a record, Louis retired on March 1, 1949.  Loss to Marciano Saddled with financial problems, Louis returned to the ring to face new heavyweight champ Ezzard Charles in September 1950, dropping a 15-round decision. He compiled a new winning streak against a series of lesser opponents, but was no match for top contender Rocky Marciano; following their bout on October 26, 1951, which ended in a brutal eighth-round TKO, Louis retired for good with a career record of 68-3, including 54 knockouts. Post-Boxing Career The years after his retirement from the ring proved uneven for Louis. He was still a revered public figure, but money was a constant issue for him due to unpaid taxes. He briefly wrestled professionally in the mid-1950s, and later served as a referee for both wrestling and boxing matches. The IRS eventually forgave his debt, allowing the former champ to regain some financial stability while he worked as a greeter at the Caesars Palace casino in Las Vegas. Louis suffered from his share of health problems as he aged. After battling a cocaine addiction, he was committed to psychiatric care in 1970. He was later confined to a wheelchair after undergoing heart surgery in 1977.   Wives and Personal Life Overall, Louis was married four times. He twice married and divorced Marva Trotter, with whom he had two children: Jacqueline and Joseph Louis Jr. His marriage to his second wife, Rose Morgan, was annulled after less than three years. With his his third wife, Martha Jefferson, he adopted four more children: Joe Jr., John, Joyce and Janet. Additionally, Louis was romantically involved with such celebrities as singer Lena Horne and actress Lana Turner. Death and Legacy Louis passed away from cardiac arrest on April 12, 1981. Undoubtedly one of his sport's all-time greats, he was inducted into The Ring Magazine Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954 and the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990. However, Louis also left behind a legacy that transcended the boundaries of athletics. He was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal in 1982, and in 1993 he was the first boxer to appear on a commemorative postage stamp. Boxing (also known as "Western boxing" or "pugilism") is a combat sport in which two people, usually wearing protective gloves and other protective equipment such as hand wraps and mouthguards, throw punches at each other for a predetermined amount of time in a boxing ring. Although the term "boxing" is commonly attributed to "western boxing", in which only the fists are involved, boxing has developed in various ways in different geographical areas and cultures. In global terms, boxing is a set of combat sports focused on striking, in which two opponents face each other in a fight using at least their fists, and possibly involving other actions such as kicks, elbow strikes, knee strikes, and headbutts, depending on the rules. Some of the forms of the modern sport are western boxing, bare knuckle boxing, kickboxing, muay-thai, lethwei, savate, and sanda.[1][2] Boxing techniques have been incorporated into many martial arts, military systems, and other combat sports. While humans have fought in hand-to-hand combat since the dawn of human history, the earliest evidence of any type of boxing can be seen in Sumerian carvings from the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC.[3][4][5][6] The earliest evidence of boxing rules date back to Ancient Greece, where boxing was established as an Olympic game in 688 BC.[3] Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century with the 1867 introduction of the Marquess of Queensberry Rules. Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a standard fixture in most international games — it also has its own world championships. Boxing is overseen by a referee over a series of one-to-three-minute intervals called "rounds". A winner can be resolved before the completion of the rounds when a referee deems an opponent incapable of continuing, disqualifies of an opponent, or the resignation of an opponent. When the fight reaches the end of its final round with both opponents still standing, the judges' scorecards determine the victor. In case both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, a professional bout is considered a draw. In Olympic boxing, because a winner must be declared, judges award the contest to one fighter on technical criteria. Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient history 1.2 Early London prize ring rules 1.3 Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867) 1.4 Late 19th and early 20th centuries 1.5 Modern boxing 2 Rules 3 Professional vs. amateur boxing 3.1 Amateur boxing 3.2 Professional boxing 4 Boxing styles 4.1 Definition of style 4.2 Combinations of styles 4.3 Style matchups 5 Equipment 6 Technique 6.1 Stance 6.2 Punches 6.3 Defense 6.4 Unorthodox strategies 7 Ring corner 8 Health concerns 8.1 Possible health benefits 9 Boxing Hall of Fame 10 Governing and sanctioning bodies 11 Boxing rankings 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 External links History Ancient history See also: Ancient Greek boxing and History of physical training and fitness A painting of Minoan youths boxing, from an Akrotiri fresco circa 1650 BC. This is the earliest documented use of boxing gloves. A boxing scene depicted on a Panathenaic amphora from Ancient Greece, circa 336 BC, British Museum Hitting with different extremities of the body, such as kicks and punches, as an act of human aggression, has existed throughout the world throughout human history, being a combat system as old as wrestling. However, in terms of sports competition, due to the lack of writing in the prehistoric times and the lack of references, it is not possible to determine rules of any kind of boxing in prehistory, and in ancient times only can be inferred from the few intact sources and references to the sport. The earliest known depiction of any form of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from the 3rd millennium BC.[3] A relief sculpture from Egyptian Thebes (c. 1350 BC) shows both boxers and spectators.[3] These early Middle-Eastern and Egyptian depictions showed contests where fighters were either bare-fisted or had a band supporting the wrist.[3] The earliest evidence of use of gloves can be found in Minoan Crete (c. 1500–1400 BC).[3] Various types of boxing existed in ancient India. The earliest references to musti-yuddha come from classical Vedic epics such as the Rig Veda (c. 1500–1000 BCE) and Ramayana (c. 700–400 BCE).[7] The Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts during the time of King Virata.[8] Duels (niyuddham) were often fought to the death. During the period of the Western Satraps, the ruler Rudradaman—in addition to being well-versed in "the great sciences" which included Indian classical music, Sanskrit grammar, and logic—was said to be an excellent horseman, charioteer, elephant rider, swordsman and boxer.[9] The Gurbilas Shemi, an 18th-century Sikh text, gives numerous references to musti-yuddha. The martial art is related to other forms of martial arts found in other parts of the Indian cultural sphere including Muay Thai in Thailand, Muay Lao in Laos, Pradal Serey in Cambodia and Lethwei in Myanmar.[10][11] In Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport called pygmachia, and enjoyed consistent popularity. In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad, 688 BC. The boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect them. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged defeat or could not continue. Weight categories were not used, which meant heavier fighters had a tendency to dominate. The style of boxing practiced typically featured an advanced left leg stance, with the left arm semi-extended as a guard, in addition to being used for striking, and with the right arm drawn back ready to strike. It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, and there is little evidence to suggest that targeting the body or the use of kicks was common,[12][13] which resembles it in that sense of modern western boxing. A boxer and a rooster in a Roman mosaic of 1st century AD at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome.[14] Fighters protected their knuckles with leather strips wrapped around their fists. Eventually harder leather was used and the strips became a weapon. Metal studs were introduced to the strips to make the cestus. Fighting events were held at Roman amphitheatres. Early London prize ring rules A straight right demonstrated in Edmund Price's The Science of Defence: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867 Records of boxing activity disappeared in the west after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called kulachniy boy or 'fist fighting'. As the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport later resurfaced in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing, sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719.[15] This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used. This earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling. On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica), engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize. Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham in 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, 2nd Baronet, a wrestling patron from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today.[16] The first boxing rules, called the Broughton Rules, were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred.[17] Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton encouraged the use of "mufflers", a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in "jousting" or sparring sessions in training, and in exhibition matches. Tom Molineaux (left) vs Tom Cribb in a re-match for the heavyweight championship of England, 1811 These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to end the round and begin the 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered "unmanly"[18] and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the seconds of the boxers.[19] In modern boxing, there is a three-minute limit to rounds (unlike the downed fighter ends the round rule). Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to preserve their hands because the head was a common target to hit full out.[dubious – discuss][citation needed] Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows.[20][21][unreliable source?] The British sportswriter Pierce Egan coined the term "the sweet science" as an epithet for prizefighting – or more fully "the sweet science of bruising" as a description of England's bare-knuckle fight scene in the early nineteenth century.[22] Boxing could also be used to settle disputes even by females. In 1790 in Waddington, Lincolnshire Mary Farmery and Susanna Locker both laid claim to the affections of a young man; this produced a challenge from the former to fight for the prize, which was accepted by the latter. Proper sidesmen were chosen, and every matter conducted in form. After several knock-down blows on both sides, the battle ended in favour of Mary Farmery.[23] The London Prize Ring Rules introduced measures that remain in effect for professional boxing to this day, such as outlawing butting, gouging, scratching, kicking, hitting a man while down, holding the ropes, and using resin, stones or hard objects in the hands, and biting.[24] Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867) In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for lightweights, middleweights and heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them. 0:40 The June 1894 Leonard–Cushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetograph was made available to exhibitors for $22.50.[25] Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown. There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down, and wrestling was banned. The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists.[26] The gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face. Late 19th and early 20th centuries Through the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police.[27] Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics. Amateur Boxing Club, Wales, 1963 The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England. The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans.[28] The first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada,[29] where it was legal at the time. Throughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy.[30] They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan. Modern boxing Robert Helenius (on the right) vs. Attila Levin (on the left) at Hartwall Arena in Helsinki, Finland on 27 November 2010. The modern sport arose from illegal venues and outlawed prizefighting and has become a multibillion-dollar commercial enterprise. A majority of young talent still comes from poverty-stricken areas around the world.[citation needed] Places like Mexico, Africa, South America, and Eastern Europe prove to be filled with young aspiring athletes who wish to become the future of boxing. Even in the U.S., places like the inner cities of New York, and Chicago have given rise to promising young talent. According to Rubin, "boxing lost its appeal with the American middle class, and most of who boxes in modern America come from the streets and are street fighters".[31] Rules Main article: Marquess of Queensberry Rules The Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.[32] A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds with a minute spent between each round with the fighters resting in their assigned corners and receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls. Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches and elbows that connect, defense, knockdowns, hugging and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one or both fighters believe they have been "robbed" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where their coach, as well as one or more "seconds" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signalled end of each round. A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to "go the distance". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out; such bouts are said to have ended "inside the distance". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to their feet and can continue. Some jurisdictions require the referee to count to eight regardless of if the fighter gets up before. Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked out" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A "technical knock-out" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-knockdown rule", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that the referee feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if the fighter is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown. Ingemar Johansson of Sweden KO's heavyweight champion Floyd Patterson, 26 June 1959. In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the head or neck (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between). If a "clinch" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps their opponent's arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue. Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a "no contest" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed. Unheard of in the modern era, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a "newspaper decision (NWS)" might be made after a no decision bout had ended. A "no decision" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications. Officially, however, a "no decision" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report. Professional vs. amateur boxing Roberto Durán (right) held world championships in four weight classes: lightweight, welterweight, light middleweight and middleweight Throughout the 17th to 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts.[33] Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career. Western boxers typically participate in one Olympics and then turn pro, Cubans and other socialist countries have an opportunity to collect multiple medals.[34] In 2016, professional boxers were admitted in the Olympic Games and other tournaments sanctioned by AIBA.[35] This was done in part to level the playing field and give all of the athletes the same opportunities government-sponsored boxers from socialist countries and post-Soviet republics have.[36] However, professional organizations strongly opposed that decision.[37][38] Amateur boxing Main article: Amateur boxing Nicola Adams (left) is the first female boxer to win an Olympic gold medal. Here with Mary Kom of India. Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, etc. In many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds. Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle. There are cases however, where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn. The white end is just a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits. Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves. Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless the fighters weigh under 165 pounds (75 kg), thus allowing them to wear ten ounce gloves. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced.[39] Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH). Professional boxing Main article: Professional boxing Firpo sending Dempsey outside the ring; painting by George Bellows. Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts, especially in Australia. Through the early 20th century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the 20th century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Kim Duk-koo eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds. Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted. At any time, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare-chested.[40] Boxing styles Definition of style "Style" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout. No two fighters' styles are alike, as each is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes. Three main styles exist in boxing: outside fighter ("boxer"), brawler (or "slugger"), and inside fighter ("swarmer"). These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as counter puncher, etc. The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage over one, but disadvantage over the other one. It follows the rock paper scissors scenario – boxer beats brawler, brawler beats swarmer, and swarmer beats boxer.[41] Boxer/out-fighter Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali was a typical example of an out-fighter. A classic "boxer" or stylist (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler.[42] Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork. Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe, Wilfredo Gómez, Salvador Sánchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney,[43] Ezzard Charles,[44] Willie Pep,[45] Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo "Finito" López, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roy Jones Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vázquez, Sergio "Maravilla" Martínez, Wladimir Klitschko and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed. Boxer-puncher A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter),[46] but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style. Notable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Canelo Álvarez, Sugar Ray Leonard, Roy Jones Jr., Wladimir Klitschko, Vasyl Lomachenko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis,[47] Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar De La Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford,[48] Henry Armstrong,[49] Sugar Ray Robinson,[50] Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón,[51] Alexis Argüello, Érik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed, Thomas Hearns, Julian Jackson and Gennady Golovkin. Counter puncher Counter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one's attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork. Notable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Joe Calzaghe, Vitali Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Martínez and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style of boxing is also used by fictional boxer Little Mac. Counter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches. The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in. The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense. This style can be incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off. They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents. A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike. As such, knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style. Brawler/slugger Famous brawler George Foreman A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb a substantial amount of punishment. However, not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García. A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio César Chávez, Roberto Durán, Jack Dempsey, Riddick Bowe, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Vitali Klitschko, Jake LaMotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy. This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and James "Clubber" Lang. Brawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other fighting styles because they train to take punches very well. They often have a higher chance than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks. Oftentimes they place focus on training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance. They also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a punch. Swarmer/in-fighter Henry Armstrong was known for his aggressive, non-stop assault style of fighting. In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called "pressure fighters") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. Mainly Mexican, Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. A successful in-fighter often needs a good "chin" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting. The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters use their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, this permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts, they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his hard "chin", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents. Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving. Notable in-fighters include Henry Armstrong, Aaron Pryor, Julio César Chávez, Jack Dempsey, Shawn Porter, Miguel Cotto, Gennady Golovkin, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Rocky Marciano,[52] Wayne McCullough, James Braddock, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb,[53][54] David Tua, James Toney and Ricky Hatton. This style was also used by the Street Fighter character Balrog.[citation needed] Combinations of styles All fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge. For example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches. Old history of the development of boxing and its prevalence contribute to fusion of various types of martial arts and the emergence of new ones that are based on them. For example, a combination of boxing and sportive sambo techniques gave rise to a combat sambo. Style matchups Louis vs. Schmeling, 1936 There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock paper scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that "styles make fights." Brawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout "The Sunshine Showdown". Although in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime. The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers. An example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick Taylor). The match was nicknamed "Thunder Meets Lightning" as an allusion to punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the "Mexican" style of boxing. Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points. Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor. Coming into the later rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage. While there was little doubt that Taylor had solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would survive the final quarter. Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards of two of the three judges. Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend. However, Taylor did not stay away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez. As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could knock him out. With about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots. Finally, with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him. Suddenly Chávez stepped around Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from Chávez' desperate final flurry. Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that dropped the younger man. By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count. Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer. Steele then concluded that Taylor was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout. Equipment Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not use them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. Both sides are allowed to inspect the wraps and gloves of the opponent to help ensure both are within agreed upon specifications and no tampering has taken place. A mouthguard is important to protect the teeth[55][56] and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet. While older boxing boots more commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts. Boxers practice their skills on several types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped "speed bag" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical "heavy bag" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. The double-end bag is usually connected by elastic on the top and bottom and moves randomly upon getting struck and helps the fighter work on accuracy and reflexes. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also use sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls. Boxers also use punch/focus mitts in which a trainer calls out certain combinations and the fighter strikes the mitts accordingly. This is a great exercise for stamina as the boxer isn't allowed to go at his own pace but that of the trainer, typically forcing the fighter to endure a higher output and volume than usual. In addition, they also allow trainers to make boxers utilize footwork and distances more accurately. Boxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes attached to posts rising in each corner. The term "ring" has come to be used as a metaphor for many aspects of prize fighting in general. Technique Main article: Boxing styles and technique Stance The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson. Upright stance Upright stance   Semi-crouch Semi-crouch   Full crouch Full crouch In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step in front of the lead man. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist (for most penetration power). Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly off-center. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the "textbook" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents. In order to retain their stance boxers take 'the first step in any direction with the foot already leading in that direction.'[57] Different stances allow for bodyweight to be differently positioned and emphasised; this may in turn alter how powerfully and explosively a type of punch can be delivered. For instance, a crouched stance allows for the bodyweight to be positioned further forward over the lead left leg. If a lead left hook is thrown from this position, it will produce a powerful springing action in the lead leg and produce a more explosive punch. This springing action could not be generated effectively, for this punch, if an upright stance was used or if the bodyweight was positioned predominantly over the back leg.[58] Mike Tyson was a keen practitioner of a crouched stance and this style of power punching. The preparatory positioning of the bodyweight over the bent lead leg is also known as an isometric preload. Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand. North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots. Punches There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. Any punch other than a jab is considered a power punch. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), their left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following assumes a right-handed boxer. Jab Jab   Cross – in counter-punch with a looping Cross – in counter-punch with a looping   Hook Hook   Uppercut Uppercut Canelo Álvarez is known as an excellent counterpuncher, being able to exploit openings in his opponents' guards while avoiding punches with head and body movement. He is also known as a formidable body puncher.[59][60] Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab extends from the side of the torso and typically does not pass in front of it. It is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or wear down their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko. Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical plane.[61] Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer give the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross is also called a "straight" or "right", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab. Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (palm facing down) though in modern times a wide percentage of fighters throw the hook with a vertical fist (palm facing themselves). The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Notable left hookers include Joe Frazier, Roy Jones Jr. and Mike Tyson. Ricardo Dominguez (left) throws an uppercut on Rafael Ortiz (right).[62] Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" an opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift an opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out. These different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or "combos." The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the "one-two combo". This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully. A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a "roundhouse," "haymaker," "overhand," or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard. Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in. Another unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm. An illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch. Both the hook and uppercut may be thrown with both hands, resulting in differing footwork and positioning from that described above if thrown by the other hand. Generally the analogous opposite is true of the footwork and torso movement. Defense There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below. Slipping Slipping   Bobbing Bobbing   Blocking (with the arms) Blocking (with the arms)   Cover-Up (with the gloves) Cover-Up (with the gloves)   Clinching Clinching   Footwork Footwork   Pulling away Pulling away Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson. Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called "rolling with the punch" or " Riding The Punch. Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving. Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A "palm", "catch", or "cuff" is a defence which intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove. Cover-up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below. Clinch – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing. Unorthodox strategies Rope-a-dope : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 "the Rumble in the Jungle" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as he would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target. Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy while conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Recently,[when?] however, eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown. Tyson Fury also attempted this against Francesco Pianeto but didn't pull it off as smoothly. Bolo punch: Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo punch is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilán as well as current British fighter Chris Eubank Jr. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch. Bolo punch Bolo punch   Overhand (overcut) Overhand (overcut) Overhand: The overhand is a punch, thrown from the rear hand, not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over the shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko. The overhand has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking. Deontay Wilder heavily favours and is otherwise known for knocking many of his opponents out with one of his right overhands. Check hook: A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport. Floyd Mayweather, Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down. Ring corner Boxer Tina Rupprecht receiving instructions from her trainer while being treated by her cutman in the ring corner between rounds. In boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds for 1 minute and where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts, blood and excessive swelling. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts or swelling that threaten the boxer's eyes. In addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase "to throw in the towel", meaning to give up, derives from this practice).[63] This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal. Health concerns See also: Dementia pugilistica and The distance (boxing) § Distance change criticisms Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage.[64] There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person.[65] Additionally, contact sports, especially combat sports, are directly related to a brain disease called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, abbreviated as CTE. This disease begins to develop during the life of the athlete, and continues to develop even after sports activity has ceased. In March 1981, neurosurgeon Dr. Fred Sonstein sought to use CAT scans in an attempt to track the degeneration of boxers' cognitive functions after seeing the decline of Bennie Briscoe.[66] From 1980 to 2007, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters died due to ring or training injuries.[67] In 1983, editorials in the Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing.[68] The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society."[69] Since then, the British,[70] Canadian[71] and Australian[72] Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing. Supporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: "It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing."[73] Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for "injury". They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches winning rounds scored 10-9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many other sports where concussions are much more prevalent.[citation needed] However, the data shows that the concussion rate in boxing is the highest of all contact sports.[74][75][76] In addition, repetitive and subconcussive blows to the head, and not just concussions, cause CTE,[77][78][79][80][81][82] and the evidence indicates that brain damage and the effects of CTE are more severe in boxing.[83][84][85][86][87][88] In 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage,[89] and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage.[90] The Gothenburg study analyzed temporary levels of neurofilament light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside. More comprehensive studies of neurological function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University in 1994 and accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council in 2017 show amateur boxing is a comparatively safe sport due to the regulations of amateur boxing and a greater control of the athletes,[91] although the studies did not focus on CTE or its long-term effects. In addition, a good training methodology and short career can reduce the effects of brain damage.[92] In 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing.[93][94] Professional boxing is forbidden in Iceland,[95] Iran and North Korea. It was banned in Sweden until 2007 when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed.[96] Boxing was banned in Albania from 1965 until the fall of Communism in 1991. Norway legalized professional boxing in December 2014.[97] Possible health benefits This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Like other active and dynamic sports, boxing may be argued to provide some general benefits, such as fat burning, increased muscle tone, strong bones and ligaments, cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, improved core stability, co-ordination and body awareness, strength and power, stress relief and self-esteem. Some claim that with a careful and thoughtful approach, boxing can be quite beneficial to health. One example is Gemma Ruegg, a two-weight regional champion from Bournemouth in Dorset, who boxed throughout her pregnancy and returned to the ring three weeks after giving birth to her daughter. Earlier, boxing helped her to get rid of alcohol addiction and depression.[98] Boxing Hall of Fame Stamp honoring heavyweight champion Gene Tunney The sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF).[99] In 2013, The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas opened in Las Vegas, Nevada founded by Steve Lott, former assistant manager for Mike Tyson.[100] The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota, New York in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures[101] include Salvador Sanchez, Jose Napoles, Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel "Flash" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas, Wilfred Benitez, Wilfredo Gomez, Felix Trinidad and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event. The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself. The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas features the $75 million ESPN Classic Sports fight film and tape library and radio broadcast collection. The collection includes the fights of many great champions, including: Muhammad Ali, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Roberto Durán, Marvin Hagler, Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Joe Frazier, Rocky Marciano and Sugar Ray Robinson. It is this exclusive fight film library that will separate the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas from the other halls of fame which do not have rights to any video of their sports. The inaugural inductees included Muhammad Ali, Henry Armstrong, Tony Canzoneri, Ezzard Charles, Julio César Chávez Sr., Jack Dempsey, Roberto Durán, Joe Louis, and Sugar Ray Robinson[102] Governing and sanctioning bodies Main article: List of boxing organisations Former WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight champion, Ukrainian Wladimir Klitschko Governing bodies British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC) European Boxing Union (EBU) Nevada State Athletic Commission (NSAC) Major sanctioning bodies World Boxing Association (WBA) World Boxing Council (WBC) International Boxing Federation (IBF) World Boxing Organization (WBO) Intermediate International Boxing Organization (IBO) Novice Intercontinental Boxing Federation (IBFed) Amateur International Boxing Association (AIBA; now also professional) Boxing rankings Main article: List of current boxing rankings There are various organization and websites, that rank boxers in both weight class and pound-for-pound manner. Transnational Boxing Rankings Board (ratings Archived 6 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine)
  • Condition: Used
  • Type: Photograph
  • Year of Production: 1947
  • Original/Licensed Reprint: Original
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: Jersey

PicClick Insights - BOXING JOE LOUIS VS JERSEY JOE WALCOTT NEGATIVES x3 FAMOUS PHOTOGRAPHER 1947 PicClick Exclusive

  •  Popularity - 0 watchers, 0.0 new watchers per day, 13 days for sale on eBay. 0 sold, 1 available.
  •  Best Price -
  •  Seller - 808+ items sold. 0% negative feedback. Great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings.

People Also Loved PicClick Exclusive