UNKNOWN Roman Coin Strange Mystery Greek Antique Old Ancient Unusual Kings Thick

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Seller: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (33,564) 99.8%, Location: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 364814857266 UNKNOWN Roman Coin Strange Mystery Greek Antique Old Ancient Unusual Kings Thick. Unknown Two Kings Coin I bought this coin as part of a Box of Coins from a Flea Market   I don't know a lot about it   It has a Two Kings next to each other Both sideas are very similar, but their uniforms change, and one does not have a beard It has some strange symbols / words above the king's heads it is quite thick 20mm in diameter and it is 3mm thick and it weighs just over 8 grams It could be Greek or Roman   All I know it is very old     Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake Sorry about the poor quality photos. They dont do the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life Bidding starts at a penny Pound...With No Reserve..If your the only bidder you win it for 1p Get Bidding and Grab a Bargain!!!! AII have a lot of Coins on Ebay so why not >  Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My Almost 100% Positive Feedback All My Items start at one penny and I always discount shipping / postage on multiple items Check out my other items !  All Payment Methods in All Major Currencies Accepted.  Be sure to add me to your favourites list ! All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Instant Positive Feedback Automatically left upon receving payment

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Charlemagne or Charles the Great (748–814) was King of the Franks, King of the Lombards, and the first Holy Roman Emperor. Due to his military accomplishments and conquests, he has been called the "Father of Europe". Part of a series on Imperial, royal, noble, gentry and chivalric ranks in Europe Emperor, Empress dowagerTsar, TsarinaHigh king, High queen King consortdowagerQueen regnantconsortdowagermotherGrand duke, Grand duchessArchduke, Archduchess Prince consortPrincess consortDuke, DuchessCrown prince, Crown princessJarlPrince-elector, Princess-elector Marquess, MarchionessMargrave, MargravineMarcher lordCount palatineVoivode Count, CountessEarlEaldorman Viscount, ViscountessCastellanBurgrave, BurgravineLandgraveAdvocatusVidameStarosta Baron, BaronessThaneLendmannPrimorBoyar RitterBaronet, BaronetessNobile Knight, ChevalierImperial KnightDruzhinnik EsquireGentleman, GentlewomanMinisterialisLord of the Manor vte Heraldic crown of the King of the Romans (variant used in the early modern period) The Iron Crown of the Lombards, a surviving example of an early medieval royal crown 12th-century depiction of Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths Louis XIV of France, the "Sun King" (Roi-Soleil), who ruled at the height of French absolutism (painting by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701) Aztec King Nezahualpiltzintli of Texcoco King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant ("reigning/ruling queen", as opposed to queen consort), although in some cases, the title of "King" is given to females such as Mary, Queen of Hungary, and Jadwiga of Poland in the 1380s. In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the title may refer to tribal kingship. Germanic kingship is cognate with Indo-European traditions of tribal rulership (c.f. Indic rājan, Gothic reiks, and Old Irish rí, etc.). In the context of classical antiquity, king may translate in Latin as rex and in Greek as archon or basileus. In classical European feudalism, the title of king as the ruler of a kingdom is understood to be the highest rank in the feudal order, potentially subject, at least nominally, only to an emperor (harking back to the client kings of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire).[1] In a modern context, the title may refer to the ruler of one of a number of modern monarchies (either absolute or constitutional). The title of king is used alongside other titles for monarchs: in the West, emperor, grand prince, prince, archduke, duke or grand duke, and in the Islamic world, malik, sultan, emir or hakim, etc.[2] The city-states of the Aztec Empire had a Tlatoani, which were kings of pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica. The Huey Tlatoani was the emperor of the Aztecs.[3] The term king may also refer to a king consort, a title that is sometimes given to the husband of a queen regnant, but the title of prince consort is more common. Etymology Further information: Rex (title) and Knyaz The English term king is derived from the Anglo-Saxon cyning, which in turn is derived from the Common Germanic *kuningaz. The Common Germanic term was borrowed into Estonian and Finnish at an early time, surviving in these languages as kuningas. It is a derivation from the term *kunjom "kin" (Old English cynn) by the -inga- suffix. The literal meaning is that of a "scion of the [noble] kin", or perhaps "son or descendant of one of noble birth" (OED). The English term translates, and is considered equivalent to, Latin rēx and its equivalents in the various European languages. The Germanic term is notably different from the word for "King" in other Indo-European languages (*rēks "ruler"; Latin rēx, Sanskrit rājan and Irish ríg; however, see Gothic reiks and, e.g., modern German Reich and modern Dutch rijk). History The English word is of Germanic origin, and historically refers to Germanic kingship, in the pre-Christian period a type of tribal kingship. The monarchies of Europe in the Christian Middle Ages derived their claim from Christianisation and the divine right of kings, partly influenced by the notion of sacral kingship inherited from Germanic antiquity. The Early Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the former Western Roman Empire into barbarian kingdoms. In Western Europe, the kingdom of the Franks developed into the Carolingian Empire by the 8th century, and the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England were unified into the kingdom of England by the 10th century. With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, the system of feudalism places kings at the head of a pyramid of relationships between liege lords and vassals, dependent on the regional rule of barons, and the intermediate positions of counts (or earls) and dukes. The core of European feudal manorialism in the High Middle Ages were the territories of the former Carolingian Empire, i.e. the kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire (centered on the nominal kingdoms of Germany and Italy).[4] In the course of the European Middle Ages, the European kingdoms underwent a general trend of centralisation of power, so that by the Late Middle Ages there were a number of large and powerful kingdoms in Europe, which would develop into the great powers of Europe in the Early Modern period. In the Iberian Peninsula, the remnants of the Visigothic Kingdom, the petty kingdoms of Asturias and Pamplona, expanded into the kingdom of Portugal, the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon with the ongoing Reconquista. In southern Europe, the kingdom of Sicily was established following the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia was claimed as a separate title held by the Crown of Aragon in 1324. In the Balkans, the Kingdom of Serbia was established in 1217. In central Europe, the Kingdom of Hungary was established in AD 1000 following the Christianisation of the Magyars. The kingdoms of Poland and Bohemia were established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1025 and 1198, respectively. In eastern Europe, the Grand Duchy of Moscow did not technically claim the status of kingdom until the early modern Tsardom of Russia. In northern Europe, the tribal kingdoms of the Viking Age by the 11th century expanded into the North Sea Empire under Cnut the Great, king of Denmark, England and Norway. The Christianization of Scandinavia resulted in "consolidated" kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, and by the end of the medieval period the pan-Scandinavian Kalmar Union. Contemporary kings Further information: List of current sovereign monarchs, List of current reigning monarchies, and List of current constituent monarchs Part of the Politics series Monarchy Heraldic royal crown Central concepts Types Philosophy Politicians History Polity Administration Related ideologies Related topics icon Politics portal vte Currently (as of 2022), fifteen kings are recognized as the heads of state of sovereign states (i.e. English king is used as official translation of the respective native titles held by the monarchs). Most of these are heads of state of constitutional monarchies; kings ruling over absolute monarchies are the King of Saudi Arabia, the King of Bahrain and the King of Eswatini.[5] Monarch House Title Kingdom Reign begin Age Monarchy est. Harald V, King of Norway Glücksburg konge Kingdom of Norway January 17, 1991 86 11th c. Carl XVI Gustaf, King of Sweden Bernadotte konung Kingdom of Sweden September 15, 1973 77 12th c. Felipe VI, King of Spain Bourbon rey Kingdom of Spain June 19, 2014 55 1978 / 1479 Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands Orange-Nassau koning Kingdom of the Netherlands April 30, 2013 56 1815 Philippe , King of the Belgians Saxe-Coburg and Gotha koning / roi / König Kingdom of Belgium July 21, 2013 63 1830 Salman, King of Saudi Arabia Saud ملك malik Kingdom of Saudi Arabia January 23, 2015 87 1932 Abdullah II, King of Jordan Hashim ملك malik Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan February 7, 1999 61 1946 Mohammed VI, King of Morocco Alaoui ملك malik Kingdom of Morocco July 23, 1999 60 1956 Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, King of Bahrain Khalifa ملك malik Kingdom of Bahrain February 14, 2002 73 1971 Vajiralongkorn, King of Thailand Chakri กษัตริย์ kasat Kingdom of Thailand October 13, 2016 71 1782 Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, King of Bhutan Wangchuck འབྲུག་རྒྱལ་པོ་ druk gyalpo Kingdom of Bhutan December 9, 2006 43 1907 Norodom Sihamoni, King of Cambodia Norodom ស្ដេច sdac Kingdom of Cambodia October 14, 2004 70 1993 / 1953 Tupou VI, King of Tonga Tupou king / tu'i Kingdom of Tonga March 18, 2012 64 1970 Letsie III, King of Lesotho Moshesh king / morena Kingdom of Lesotho February 7, 1996 60 1966 Mswati III, King of Eswatini Dlamini ngwenyama Kingdom of Eswatini April 25, 1986 55 1968 Charles III, King of the United Kingdom Windsor King United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Commonwealth realms September 8, 2022 74 927 / 843 See also Anointing Big man (anthropology) Buddhist kingship Client king Coronation Designation Divine right of kings Germanic kingship Great King High King King consort King of Kings Petty king Queen Realm Royal and noble ranks Royal family Sacred king Tribal kingship Titles translated as "king" Khan Archon Basileus Lugal Kabaka Mepe (title) Malik/Melekh Mwami Negus Oba Raja Rex (king) Rí Tlatoani Shah Tagavor Notes  The notion of a king being below an emperor in the feudal order, just as a duke is the rank below a king, is more theoretical than historical. The only kingdom title held within the Holy Roman Empire was the Kingdom of Bohemia, with the Kingdoms of Germany, Italy and Burgundy/Arles being nominal realms. The titles of King of the Germans and King of the Romans were non-landed titles held by the Emperor-elect (sometimes during the lifetime of the previous Emperor, sometimes not), although there were anti-Kings at various points; Arles and Italy were either held directly by the Emperor or not at all. The Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires technically contained various kingdoms (Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Illyria, Lombardy–Venetia and Galicia and Lodomeria, as well as the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia which were themselves subordinate titles to the Hungarian Kingdom and which were merged as Croatia-Slavonia in 1868), but the emperor and the respective kings were the same person. The Russian Empire did not include any kingdoms. The short-lived First French Empire (1804–1814/5) included a number of client kingdoms under Napoleon I, such as the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Kingdom of Etruria, the Kingdom of Württemberg, the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Kingdom of Saxony and the Kingdom of Holland. The German Empire (1871–1918) included the Kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Württemberg and Saxony, with the Prussian king also holding the Imperial title.  Pine, L.G. (1992). Titles: How the King became His Majesty. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-56619-085-5.  History Crunch Writers. "Aztec Emperors (Huey Tlatoani)". History Crunch - History Articles, Summaries, Biographies, Resources and More. Retrieved 18 April 2021.  see e.g. M. Mitterauer, Why Europe?: The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path, University of Chicago Press (2010), p. 28.  The distinction of the title of "king" from "sultan" or "emir" in oriental monarchies is largely stylistics; the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the State of Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates are also categorised as absolute monarchies. References Cannadine, David; Price, Simon, eds. (1987). Rituals of Royalty: Power and Ceremonial in Traditional Societies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33513-2. LCCN 86-29881. Craughwell, Thomas J. (2009). 5,000 Years of Royalty: Kings, Queens, Princes, Emperors & Tsars. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60376-189-5. Hani, Jean (2011). Sacred Royalty: From the Pharaoh to the Most Christian King. The Matheson Trust. ISBN 978-1-908092-05-2. Leadership Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Leader" redirects here. For other uses, see Leader (disambiguation). For other uses, see Leadership (disambiguation). Part of a series on Psychology OutlineHistorySubfields Basic psychology AbnormalAffective neuroscienceAffective scienceBehavioral geneticsBehavioral neuroscienceBehaviorismCognitive/CognitivismCognitive neuroscience SocialComparativeCross-culturalCulturalDevelopmentalDifferentialEcologicalEvolutionaryExperimentalGestaltIntelligenceMathematicalMoralNeuropsychologyPerceptionPersonalityPositivePsycholinguisticsPsychophysiologyQuantitativeSocialTheoretical Applied psychology AnomalisticApplied behavior analysisAssessmentClinicalCoachingCommunityConsumerCounselingCriticalEducationalErgonomicsFeministForensicHealthIndustrial and organizationalLegalMediaMedicalMilitaryMusicOccupational healthPastoralPoliticalPsychometricsPsychotherapyReligionSchoolSport and exerciseSuicidologySystemsTraffic Concepts BehaviorBehavioral engineeringBehavioral geneticsBehavioral neuroscienceCognitionCompetenceConsciousnessConsumer behaviorEmotionsFeelingsHuman factors and ergonomicsIntelligenceMindPsychology of religionPsychometrics Lists Counseling topicsDisciplinesOrganizationsOutlinePsychologistsPsychotherapiesResearch methodsSchools of thoughtTimelineTopics  Psychology portal vte An APEC leader setting the tone for the 2013 APEC CEO summit with an opening speech Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, encompasses the ability of an individual, group, or organization to "lead", influence, or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. "Leadership" is a contested term.[1] Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the concept, sometimes contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) North American versus European approaches.[2] Some U.S. academic environments define leadership as "a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common and ethical task".[3][page needed][4][need quotation to verify]—in other words, as an influential power-relationship in which the power of one party (the "leader") promotes movement/change in others (the "followers").[5] Some have challenged the more traditional managerial views of leadership (which portray leadership as something possessed or owned by one individual due to their role or authority), and instead advocate the complex nature of leadership which is found at all levels of institutions, both within formal[6] and informal roles.[7][page needed][need quotation to verify] Studies of leadership have produced theories involving (for example) traits,[8] situational interaction,[9] function, behavior,[10] power, vision[11] and values,[12][need quotation to verify] charisma, and intelligence,[13] among others.[4] Historical views This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Prince, written by Niccolò Machiavelli (pictured), argued that it is better for a ruler to be feared than loved, if one cannot be both. In the field of political leadership, the Chinese doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven postulated the need for rulers to govern justly, and the right of subordinates to overthrow emperors who appeared to lack divine sanction.[14] Pro-aristocracy thinkers[15] have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or genes.[16] Monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the divine right of kings). On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent.[17] In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as patriarchal and posit against them "emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies".[18] Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety. — P.K. Saxena[19] Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline... Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader. — Jia Lin, in commentary on Sun Tzu, Art of War[20] Machiavelli's The Prince, written in the early-16th century, provided a manual for rulers ("princes" or "tyrants" in Machiavelli's terminology) to gain and keep power. Prior to the 19th century, the concept of leadership had less relevance than today—society expected and obtained traditional deference and obedience to lords, kings, master-craftsmen, and slave-masters. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as 1821.[21] Historically, industrialization, opposition to the ancien regime, and the phasing out of chattel slavery meant that some newly developing organizations (nation-state republics, commercial corporations) evolved a need for a new paradigm with which to characterize elected politicians and job-granting employers—thus the development and theorizing of the idea of "leadership".[22] The functional relationship between leaders and followers may remain,[23] but acceptable (perhaps euphemistic) terminology has changed. Starting in the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. One response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism—Lenin (1870–1924) demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution, which was to bring into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat. Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources—human and material—and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare this with servant leadership.[24] For a more general view on leadership in politics, compare the concept of the statesperson. Theories Early Western history The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato's Republic[25] to Plutarch's Lives have explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership[26] and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "trait theory of leadership". A number of works in the 19th century – when the traditional authority of monarchs, lords, and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: especially the writings of Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galton. In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869) examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. In other words, leaders were born, not developed. Both of these works lent support to the notion that leadership is rooted in the characteristics of the leader. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of the University of Oxford) that further developed such characteristics. International networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help "render war impossible". This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships, which have helped to shape notions of leadership since their creation in 1903.[27] Rise of alternative theories In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews[28] prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait—situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of the leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades. Reemergence of trait theory New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the round-robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.[29] Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following: Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.[29] Significant relationships exist between leadership emergence and such individual traits as: Intelligence[30] Adjustment[30] Extraversion[30] Conscientiousness[31][32] Openness to experience[32][33] General self-efficacy[34][35] While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.[36] Specifically, Stephen Zaccaro noted that trait theories still:[36] focus on a small set of individual attributes such as the "Big Five" personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes do not distinguish between the leadership attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership Attribute pattern approach Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers adopted a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader-attribute-pattern approach.[35][37][38] In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader-attribute-pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables.[38][39] In other words, the leader-attribute-pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes. Behavioral and style theories Main article: Managerial grid model In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles.[40] David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.[41] A graphical representation of the managerial grid model Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.[42] In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions.[43][full citation needed] The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates the leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors.[44][full citation needed] The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing the followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates.[45][full citation needed] The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.[46] Positive reinforcement B. F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developed the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future.[47] The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time.[48] Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity.[49] Empirical research covering the last 20 years[needs update] suggests that applying reinforcement theory leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs. Situational and contingency theories Main articles: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom–Yetton decision model, path–goal theory, and Substitutes for Leadership Theory Situational theory is another reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.[50] This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics: no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."[51] Some theorists synthesized the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al.,[52] academics normalized the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.[53] Theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation; this is sometimes called contingency theory. Three contingency leadership theories are the Fiedler contingency model, the Vroom-Yetton decision model, and the path-goal theory. The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called situational control). The theory defines two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).[54] According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability. Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton[55] and later with Arthur Jago,[56] developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations. They used this in a normative decision model in which leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.[57] This approach supported the idea that a manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory.[58] The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom.[59] According to House, "leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance".[60] The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances, and as a transactional leadership theory, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers. Functional theory Main article: Functional leadership model General Petraeus talks with U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan. Functional leadership theory[61][full citation needed] addresses specific leader behaviors that contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion.[62][full citation needed] While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership,[63][full citation needed] it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well.[64][full citation needed] In summarizing literature on functional leadership, researchers[65][full citation needed] observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work. Various leadership behaviors facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure.[66][full citation needed] Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards. Integrated psychological theory Main article: Three Levels of Leadership model The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of servant leadership and authentic leadership. Integrated psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership model (2011).[67] Scouller argued that older theories offered only limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effectively.[67]: 34–35  He pointed out, for example, that: Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders. An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Mouton's team style) would not suit all circumstances. Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears, or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner psychology. None of the older theories successfully addressed the challenge of developing "leadership presence"—that certain "something" in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust, and makes followers want to work with them. Scouller's model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are public, private, and personal leadership: The first two—public and private leadership—are "outer" or behavioral levels. These behaviors address what Scouller called "the four dimensions of leadership". These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; and (4) individual selection and motivation. Public leadership focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. Private leadership covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence individuals one-to-one. The third—personal leadership—is an "inner" level and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership presence, know-how, and skill. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical know-how and skill, (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people, which is the basis of servant leadership, and (3) Psychological self-mastery, the foundation for authentic leadership. Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers, and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits. This enables behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of mindfulness meditation.[67]: 137–237  Transactional and transformational theories Main articles: Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership: transactional which involves exchange of labor for rewards, and transformational which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing a group vision.[68] The transactional leader[69] is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. Leader–member exchange theory Main article: Leader–member exchange theory Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process,[70] which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage model.[71] Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them.[72] LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups. In-group members are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader.[73] In-group members In-group members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members.[72] In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing the same social backgrounds and interests. Out-group members Out-group members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate job performance, good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a fair wage and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization.[72] Emotions See also: Emotional intelligence Leadership can be an emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process.[74] A leader's mood affects his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels:[75] The mood of individual group members Members of groups whose leaders are in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. Leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion.[75] Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers.[76] The affective tone of the group Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood.[75] Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.[75] In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings.[77] Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The leader's behavior creates situations and events that lead to emotional response, for example by giving feedback, allocating tasks, and distributing resources. Since employee behavior and productivity are affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders.[78] Emotional intelligence—the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others—contributes to effective leadership within organizations.[77] Neo-emergent theory Main article: Functional leadership model The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme[79]) sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of information by the leader or by other stakeholders,[80] not through the actions of the leader.[citation needed] In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known by historians that the naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England, he would receive a true hero's welcome.[81] In modern society, various media outlets, including the press and blogs, present their own interpretations of leaders. These depictions can stem from actual circumstances, but they might also arise from political influences, monetary incentives, or the personal agendas of the author, media, or leader. Consequently, the impression of leaders is often constructed and may not accurately mirror their genuine leadership attributes. This highlights the historical role of concepts like royal lineage, which once stood as a substitute for evaluating or comprehending adept governance abilities. Constructivist analysis Some constructivists question whether leadership exists, or suggest that (for example) leadership "is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs".[82] Leadership emergence Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders. Many personality characteristics are reliably associated with leadership emergence.[83] The list includes, but is not limited to: assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring, and social motivation.[83] Other areas of study in relation to how and why leaders emerge include narcissistic traits, absentee leaders, and participation[vague]. Today's sophisticated research methods look at personality characteristics in combination to determine patterns of leadership emergence.[84] Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela share traits that an average person does not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis.[85] No research has found a “leadership gene”; instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Anecdotal and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior.[86][full citation needed] Using a large international sample researchers found three factors that motivate leaders: affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).[87] Assertiveness The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear: individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders.[88] Authenticity Further information: authentic leadership Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders.[89] Big Five personality factors Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups.[32] However, introversion–extroversion appears to be the most influential quality in leadership emergence; specifically, leaders tend to be high in extroversion.[84] Introversion–extroversion is also the quality that can be judged most easily among those in the Big Five Traits.[84] Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence.[32] Birth order Those born first in their families, and only children, are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-borns are thought to be rebellious and creative.[83] Character strengths Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork.[90] Dominance Individuals with dominant personalities (they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way) are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations.[91] Emotional intelligence Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively.[83] Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders.[92] Intelligence Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.[83] Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between .25 and .30.[93] However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed in intelligence the prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests, and values[94] Self-efficacy for leadership An individual's belief in their ability to lead is associated with an increased willingness to accept a leadership role and find success in its pursuit.[95] There are no set conditions for this characteristic to become emergent. However, it must be sustained by an individual's belief that they have the ability to learn and improve it with time. Individuals partly evaluate their own capabilities by observing others; working with a superior who is seen as an effective leader may help the individual develop a belief that he or she can perform in a similar manner.[96] Self-monitoring Individuals who closely manage and adjust their behavior based on the social context, often referred to as high self-monitors, have a greater tendency to assume leadership roles within a group. This propensity is attributed to their heightened interest in elevating their status and their readiness to conform their actions to match the requirements of the given situation.[97] Social motivation People who exhibit both a drive for achievement and a desire for social connections tend to participate actively in group-based efforts to solve problems. Additionally, they have a higher likelihood of being chosen as leaders within these groups.[98] Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits A number of negative traits of leadership have also been studied. Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in which status is determined by intense competition among rivals within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident.[99] Absentee leader Existing research has shown that absentee leaders—those who rise into power, but not necessarily because of their skills, and who are marginally engaging with their role—are actually worse than destructive leaders, because it takes longer to pinpoint their mistakes.[100] Willingness to Participate A willingness to participate in a group can indicate a person's interest as well as their willingness to take responsibility for how the group performs.[84] Those who do not say much during a group meeting are less likely to emerge as a leader than those who speak up.[84] There is however some debate over whether the quality of participation in a group matters more than the quantity. A hypothesis termed the ‘babble effect’ or the ‘babble hypothesis’ has been studied as a factor in the emergence of leaders.[101] It posits that leader emergence is highly correlated with the quantity of speaking time—specifically, those who speak a lot in a group setting are more likely to become a group leader.[102][101] The quantity of participation is more important that the quality of these contributions when it comes to leader emergence.[84] However, some studies indicate that there must be some element of quality combined with quantity to support leader emergence. Thus, while sheer quantity does matter to leadership, when the contributions made are also of high-quality leader emergence is further facilitated.[103] Leadership styles Main article: Leadership styles A leadership style is a leader's way of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership.[104] Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The best style is one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members.[105] A field in which leadership style has gained attention is that of military science, which expresses a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job. A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domain knowledge. Domain knowledge for leaders encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.[106] Autocratic or authoritarian Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators. Autocratic leaders do not ask for or entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. Autocratic management can be been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group.[105] Participative or democratic The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality. This has also been called shared leadership. Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership In laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making is passed on to the subordinates. (The phrase laissez-faire is French and literally means "let them do"). Subordinates are given the right and power to make decisions to establish goals and work out the problems or hurdles, and are given a high degree of independence and freedom to formulate their own objectives and ways to achieve them..[107] Task-oriented Main article: Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Task-oriented leadership is a style characterized by a leader's concentration on the necessary tasks to achieve specific production objectives. Leaders following this approach emphasize the creation of systematic solutions for given problems or goals, ensuring strict adherence to deadlines, and achieving targeted outcomes. Unlike leaders who prioritize accommodating group members, those with a task-oriented approach concentrate on obtaining precise solutions to fulfill production aims. Consequently, they are skilled at ensuring timely goal attainment, although the well-being of their group members might be compromised. These leaders maintain an unwavering focus on both the overall goal and the assigned tasks for each team member. Relationship-oriented Main article: Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership Relationship-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader focuses on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members.[108] Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, show trust and confidence in group members, and show appreciation for work done. Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support. However, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer. Paternalism Main article: Paternalism Paternalism leadership styles often reflect a father-figure mindset. The structure of team is organized hierarchically where the leader is viewed above the followers. The leader also provides both professional and personal direction in the lives of the members.[109] Members' choices are limited due to the rigid direction given by the leader. The term paternalism is from the Latin pater meaning "father". The leader is most often a male. This leadership style is often found in Russia, Africa, and Pacific Asian Societies.[109] Servant leadership Main article: Servant leadership With the transformation into a knowledge society, the concept of servant leadership has become more popular, notably through modern technology management styles such as Agile. In this style, the leadership is externalized from the leader who serves as a guardian of the methodology and a "servant" or service provider to the team they lead. The cohesion and common direction of the team is dictated by a common culture, common goals and sometimes a specific methodology. This style is different from the laissez-faire in that the leader constantly works towards reaching the common goals as a team, but without giving explicit directions on tasks. Transactional and Transformational Leadership Main articles: Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership Transactional leadership refers to an exchange relationship between a leader and followers in which they both strive to meet their own self-interests. The term transactional leadership was introduced by Weber in 1947.[110] There are several forms of transactional leadership, the first being contingent reward, in which the leader outlines what the follower must do to be rewarded for the effort. The second form of transactional leadership is management-by-exception, in which the leader monitors performance of the follower and takes corrective action if standards are not met. Finally transactional leaders may be laissez-faire, avoiding taking any action at all. [111] Transformational leadership refers to a leader who moves beyond immediate self interests using idealized influence (charisma), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation (creativity), or individualized consideration. Idealized influence and inspirational motivation are when a leader is able to envision and communicate a mutually desirable future state. Intellectual stimulation is when a leader helps their followers to become more creative and innovative. Individualized consideration is when a leader pays attention to the developmental needs of their followers, supporting and coaching them.[111] Leadership differences affected by gender This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Find sources: "Leadership" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2013) Another factor that affects leadership style is whether the leader is male or female. When men and women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an agentic leadership style. They are task-oriented, active, decision focused, independent, and goal oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpful towards others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and mindful of others' feelings. In general, when women are asked to describe themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They give advice, offer assurances, and manage conflicts in an attempt to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women connect more positively to group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact, and responding tactfully to others' comments. Men, conversely, describe themselves as influential, powerful, and proficient at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more focus on initiating structure within the group, setting standards and objectives, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in the work that needs to be done. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, these sex differences are only tendencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and women across all groups and situations.[84] Meta-analyses show that people associate masculinity and agency more strongly with leadership than femininity and communion.[112] Such stereotypes may have an effect on leadership evaluations of men and women.[113] In times of crisis, women tend to lead better[clarification needed] than men due to a show of empathy and confidence during briefings and other forms of communication. This has been critical during the COVID-19 pandemic as female governed states showed fewer deaths than male led states.[114] Barriers for non-western female leaders Many things contribute to barriers to women's entrance into leadership. These barriers also differ among cultures. Despite the increasing number of female leaders in the world, only a small fraction come from non-westernized cultures. Although the barriers listed below may be more severe in non-western cultures, this does not imply that westernized cultures do not have these barriers as well. These subsections aim to compare the differences between the two: Research and Literature Although there have been many studies done on leadership in women, comparatively little research has been done on women in paternalistic cultures. The literature and research done on women emerging as leaders in a society that prefers men is lacking. This hinders women from knowing how to reach their leadership goals, and fails to educate men about this disparity.[115] Maternity Leave Studies have shown the importance of longer[compared to?] paid maternity leave and the positive effects it has on a female employee's mental health and return to work. In Sweden, it was shown that the increased flexibility in timing for mothers to return to work decreased the odds of poor mental health reports. In non-western cultures that mostly follow paternalism, lack of knowledge on the benefits of maternity leave impacts the support given to the women during an important time in their life.[116] Society and Laws Countries that follow paternalism, such as India, allow for women to be treated unjustly. Issues such as child marriage and minor punishments for perpetrators in crimes against women shape society's view on how women should be treated. This can prevent women from feeling comfortable speaking out in personal and professional settings.[117] Glass Ceilings and Glass Cliffs Women who work in a very paternalistic culture or industry (e.g. the oil or engineering industry), often deal with limitations in their careers that prevent them from advancing into leadership positions. This may be due to a mentality that insists only males carry leadership characteristics. The term glass cliff refers to undesired projects that are often given to women because they have an increased risk of failure. These undesired projects are given to female employees where they are more likely to fail and leave the organization.[118] Performance Some researchers argued that the influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders.[119][full citation needed] Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes.[120][full citation needed] [121] To facilitate successful leadership performance it is important to understand and accurately measure it. Job performance generally refers to behavior that contributes to organizational success.[122][full citation needed] Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of them. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance.[123][full citation needed] Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance.[121] "Leadership performance" may refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While they may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied or research focus.[124] Another way to conceptualize leader performance is to focus on the outcomes of the leader's followers, group, team, unit, or organization. In evaluating this type of leader performance, two general strategies are typically used. The first relies on subjective perceptions of the leader's performance from subordinates, superiors, or occasionally peers or other parties. The other type of effectiveness measures are more objective indicators of follower or unit performance, such as measures of productivity, goal attainment, sales figures, or unit financial performance. — B.M. Bass & R.E. Riggio[125] A toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it.[126] Measuring leadership Measuring leadership has proven difficult and complex—even impossible.[127] Attempts to assess leadership performance via group performance bring in multifarious different factors. Different perceptions of leadership itself may lead to differing measuring methods.[128] Nevertheless, leadership theoreticians have proven perversely reluctant to abandon the vague subjective qualitative popular concept of "leaders".[129] Traits This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. (August 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. The reason given is: it belongs under "Theories: Reemergence of trait theory". Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. (August 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Julius Caesar, one of the world's greatest military leaders Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Later studies indicated that leadership is more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual: One such trait or set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. Scholars have found leadership traits of an individual that do not change from situation to situation—traits such as intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness.[130] However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances. Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance, and sometimes dominance. People with these traits wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious, and often are very competitive. Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits can formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under stress or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out plans for the future. Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln had the traits of determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their continuously changing environments.[130] Self-confidence encompasses the traits of high self-esteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-assurance. Leaders who are self-confident do not doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions. They also can project this self-confidence onto others, building their trust and commitment. Integrity is demonstrated in leaders who are truthful, trustworthy, principled, consistent, dependable, loyal, and not deceptive. Leaders with integrity often share these values with their followers, as this trait is mainly an ethics issue. These leaders keep their word and are honest and open with their cohorts. Sociability describes leaders who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, flexible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be accepted by the public, use diplomatic measures to solve issues, and adapt their social persona to the situation at hand. Mother Teresa was an exceptional example who embodied integrity, assertiveness, and social abilities in her diplomatic dealings with the leaders of the world.[130] Few great leaders encompass all of the traits listed above, but many have the ability to apply a number of them to succeed. Ontological-phenomenological model This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. The reason given is: it belongs under "Theories". Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. (August 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Werner Erhard, Michael C. Jensen, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger described leadership as "an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that was not going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties." In this definition leadership concerns the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as "followers" and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that fulfills the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that was not going to happen is not the "idea of the leader", but rather is what emerges from digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership.[131] Contexts Organizations An organization that is established as an instrument or as a means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to by sociologists as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and this is reflected in subdivisions of the organization.[132] Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. The formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's[specify] model, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. This bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position.[133] In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure.[134] The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life—the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves. In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.[135] Now humanity spends a major portion of its waking hours working for organizations. The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.[136][137][need quotation to verify] Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization.[138] Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures[jargon]. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.[136] A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. In this scenario, leadership is not dependent on title or formal authority.[139][full citation needed] Ogbonnia defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organization or society".[140][page needed][full citation needed] John Hoyle argues that leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist.[141] A person who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their position. However, they must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority is only potentially available to them. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in a hierarchy, with commensurate authority.[136] Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.[142][need quotation to verify] Management The terms "management" and "leadership" have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns between "transactional" leadership (characterized by emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, and management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterized by charisma, personal relationships, and creativity).[69] The role of leader is one in which one can try to deal with trust issues and issues derived from lacking trust.[143] Group In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called shared leadership, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. It is furthermore characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation, and mutual influence among team members.[144] Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.[145] Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner mentors[clarification needed] to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success.[146] According to the National School Boards Association (U.S.A.), these group leaderships or leadership teams have these specific characteristics:[citation needed] Characteristics of a Team There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members. There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, and to learn from and work with others. The members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal. Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and goals. Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals. Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task. Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood. Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth. Personal traits: Members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized. Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups. Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together. Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly. Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members. Self-leadership Self-leadership is a process that occurs within an individual.[147][need quotation to verify] Self-leadership is having a developed sense of who you are, what you can achieve, and what are your goals are, coupled with the ability to affect your emotions, behaviors, and communication. At the center of leadership is the person who is motivated to make the difference. Self-leadership is a way toward more effectively leading other people.[citation needed] Biology and evolution of leadership Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present cases of leadership in non-human animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans appear in other social species, too.[148] They also suggest that the evolutionary origins of leadership differ from those of dominance. In one study, van Vugt and his team looked at the relation between basal testosterone and leadership versus dominance. They found that testosterone correlates with dominance but not with leadership. This was replicated in a sample of managers in which there was no relation between hierarchical position and testosterone level.[149] Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence, present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land.[150] This position is contentious.[citation needed] Many animals apart from apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must[editorializing] examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (which are likewise matriarchal), sheep (which "follow" in some sense castrated bellwethers), and many others. By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do not unite behind the chief male of the land. Bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. (Incidentally, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or with its reputation as a "hippie chimp".[151]) Myths Leadership has been described as one of the least understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that several flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership interfere with people's conception of what leadership is about.[152] Leadership is innate According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive dispositional characteristics present at birth (e.g., extraversion, intelligence, or ingenuity). However, evidence shows that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation.[153] Thus, effective leadership can result from nature (i.e., innate talents) as well as nurture (i.e., acquired skills). Leadership is possessing power over others Although leadership is certainly a form of power, it is not demarcated by power over people. Rather, it is a power with people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a leader and his/her followers.[153] Despite popular belief, the use of manipulation, coercion, and domination to influence others is not a requirement for leadership. People who seek group consent and strive to act in the best interests of others can also become effective leaders. Leaders are positively influential The validity of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can be illustrated using several examples. For instance, the bystander effect (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a leader.[154] Moreover, group performance,[155] creativity,[156] and efficiency[157] all tend to climb in businesses with designated managers or CEOs. The difference leaders make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own agendas at the expense of others, including their own followers. Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.[158] Leaders entirely control group outcomes In Western cultures it is generally assumed that group leaders make all the difference when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment.[citation needed] This romanticized view of leadership—the tendency to overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their groups and their groups' outcomes—ignores the existence of many other factors that influence group dynamics.[159] For example, group cohesion, communication patterns, individual personality traits, group context, the nature or orientation of the work, as well as behavioral norms and established standards influence group functionality. For this reason, it is unwarranted to assume that all leaders are in complete control of their groups' achievements. All groups have a designated leader Not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups that are primarily composed of women,[160] are limited in size, are free from stressful decision-making,[161] or only exist for a short period of time (e.g., student work groups; pub quiz/trivia teams) often undergo a diffusion of responsibility, in which leadership tasks and roles are shared amongst members.[160][161] Group members resist leaders Group members' dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced self-reliance and[ambiguous] overall group strength.[153] Most people prefer to be led than to be without a leader.[162] This "need for a leader" becomes especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conflict. Group members tend to be more contented and productive when they have a leader to guide them. Although individuals filling leadership roles can be a direct source of resentment for followers, most people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to their groups and consequently welcome the guidance of a leader.[163] Action-oriented environments One approach to team leadership examines action-oriented environments, where effective functional leadership is required to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams deployed into the field. Some examples of action-oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural fire, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous environment.[164] Leadership of small groups is often created to respond to a situation or critical incident. In most cases, these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or backup ("action environments"). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of leaders in front-line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment. Other examples include modern technology deployments of small/medium-sized IT teams into client plant sites. Leadership of these teams requires hands-on experience and a lead-by-example attitude to empower team members to make well thought-out and concise decisions independent of executive management and/or home-base decision-makers. Early adoption of Scrum and Kanban branch development methodologies helped to alleviate the dependency that field teams had on trunk based development[jargon]. This method of just-in-time action oriented development and deployment allowed remote plant sites to deploy up-to-date software patches frequently and without dependency on core team deployment schedules, satisfying the clients' needs to rapidly patch production environment bugs.[165][importance?] Critical thought Carlyle's 1840 "Great Man theory", which emphasized the role of leading individuals, met opposition (from Herbert Spencer, Leo Tolstoy, and others) in the 19th and 20th centuries. Karl Popper noted in 1945 that leaders can mislead and make mistakes—he warns against deferring to "great men".[166] Noam Chomsky[167] and others[168] have subjected the concept of leadership to critical thinking and assert that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership may satisfy people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that one should question subjection to a will or intellect other than one's own if the leader is not a subject-matter expert. Concepts such as autogestion, employeeship, and common civic virtue, challenge the fundamentally anti-democratic nature of the leadership principle by stressing individual responsibility and/or group authority in the workplace and elsewhere and by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out "leadership" as the basis of a special class of individuals. Similarly, various historical calamities (such as World War II) can be attributed[169] to a misplaced reliance on the principle of leadership as exhibited in dictatorship. The idea of leaderism paints leadership and its excesses in a negative light.[170] See also Adaptive performance – Adjusting to and understanding change in a workplace Charisma – Charm that can inspire devotion in others Crowd psychology – Branch of social psychology E-leadership Followership – subordinate role Full Range Leadership Model – Theory of leadership Leadership accountability – Concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making Leadership school Multiteam system Narcissistic leadership – Leadership style Nicomachean Ethics – Aristotle's theory of virtue ethics grounded in natural philosophy and human teleology Professional development – Learning to earn or maintain professional credentials Realistic Job Preview Super-team – Concept within organization development Three theological virtues – Christian ethics Uli al-amr – Those charged with authority in Islam References Citations  Grint, Keith (2005). Leadership: Limits and Possibilities. London: Palgrave. 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[...] if our civilisation is to survive, we must break with the habit of deference to great men. Great men may make great mistakes; and [...] some of the greatest leaders of the past supported the perennial attack on freedom and reason. Their influence, too rarely challenged, continues to mislead [...]  {{multiref2 |1=Chomsky, Noam (1999). "Consent without Consent". Profit over People: neoliberalism and global order. p. 53. |2=Chomsky, Noam (1999). "Consent without Consent: Regimenting the Public Mind". Profit Over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order. New York: Seven Stories Press (published 2011). ISBN 9781609802912. Retrieved 7 September 2020.  Dannhauser, Zani (2007). The Relationship between Servant Leadership, Follower Trust, Team Commitment and Unit Effectiveness (PhD thesis). Stellenbosch University.  Arendt, Hannah (1963). Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. New York: Viking. Wheatcroft, Andrew; Overy, Richard (1989). The Road to War: The Origins of World War II (Revised ed.). London: Random House (published 2012). ISBN 9781448112395. Retrieved 2017-08-20.  Acton, Q. Ashton, ed. (10 January 2013). Issues in Culture, Rights, and Governance Research. Atlanta, Georgia: ScholarlyEditions (published 2013). ISBN 9781481649261. Retrieved 7 September 2020. '[...] "leaderism" - as an emerging set of beliefs that frames and justifies certain innovatory changes in contemporary organizational and managerial practice - is a development of managerialism that has been utilized and applied within the policy discourse of public service reform in the UK [...]' Nageshwar, K. (3 November 2016). Interpreting Contemporary India. AuthorHouse (published 2016). ISBN 9781524665319. Retrieved 7 September 2020. Thus like the 'Animalism' of Orwell, democracy is gradually slipping into a quagmire to be equated with 'Leaderism'. The leader frequently closets with a select band of confidants, aka coterie, and evolves the principles of leaderism. Thus the gospel of leaderism is then flown down to the party rank and file. Loyalty to the master is perpetuated in the name of Leaderism. Other Sources Books Bitar, Amer (2020). Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications. Springer Nature. ISBN 9783030573973. Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-1-4069-4419-8. Ladkin, Donna (2011). Rethinking Leadership : A New Look at Old Leadership Questions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85793-131-3. Miner, J. B. (2005). Organizational Behavior: Behavior 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe. Montana, Patrick J.; Bruce H. (2008). Management. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series, Inc. ISBN 978-0-944740-04-0. Hiebert, Murray; Klatt, Bruce (2000). The Encyclopedia of Leadership: A Practical Guide to Popular Leadership Theories and Techniques (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780071363082. Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2010). Psychology and work today : an introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 171. ISBN 978-0205683581. Tittemore, James A. (2003). Leadership at all Levels. Canada: Boskwa Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9732914-0-7. Journal articles Ahlquist, John S.; Levi, Margaret (2011). "Leadership: What It Means, What It Does, and What We Want to Know About It". Annual Review of Political Science. 14 (1): 1–24 Avolio, Bruce J.; Walumbwa, Fred O.; Weber, Todd J. (2009). "Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions". Annual Review of Psychology. 60 (1): 421–449. Bouilloud, Jean-Philippe; Deslandes, Ghislain; Mercier, Guillaume (2019). "The Leader as Chief Truth Officer: The Ethical Responsibility of "Managing the Truth" in Organizations". Journal of Business Ethics. 157: 1–13. doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3678-0. S2CID 149433917. Hadley Cantril (1958) "Effective democratic leadership: a psychological interpretation", Journal of Individual Psychology 14: 128–38, and pages 139–49 in Psychology, Humanism and Scientific Inquiry (1988) edited by Albert H. Cantril, Transaction Books. 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A civil rights attorney and an academic, he has been credited with bringing about a significant improvement in America’s reputation abroad. His efforts to strengthen international diplomacy was recognized with the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize. freestar  2  Mahatma Gandhi (Indian Freedom Fighter who Employed Non-violent Resistance & Known as 'Father of the Nation') Mahatma Gandhi 512 252 Listed In: Lawyers, Revolutionaries, Political Leaders Birthdate: October 2, 1869 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Porbandar, India Died: January 30, 1948 An Indian lawyer and anti-colonial nationalist, Mahatma Gandhi was a major figure in India’s fight for independence from British rule. He is renowned for his employment of non-violent resistance and civil disobedience methods. Despite his popularity, he had numerous detractors as well and was assassinated in 1948. He is widely considered the Father of the Nation in India.  3  Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1940 - 1945, 1951 - 1955)) Winston Churchill 357 196 Listed In: Prime Ministers, Political Leaders Birthdate: November 30, 1874 Sun Sign: Sagittarius Birthplace: Blenheim Palace, England, United Kingdom Died: January 24, 1965 The former Prime Minister of the United Kingdoms, Winston Churchill, is known for successfully leading his country during the Second World War against the Nazi Germany. An officer in the British army, he also served as a war correspondent before venturing into politics. One of the most influential peoples in British history, Churchill was also an accomplished painter. Recommended Lists:Quotes By Famous LeadersDictators  4  Alexander Hamilton (American Revolutionary and Founding Father of the United States) Alexander Hamilton 269 128 Listed In: Military Leaders, Political Leaders Birthdate: January 11, 1755 Sun Sign: Capricorn Birthplace: Charlestown, Saint Kitts and Nevis Died: July 12, 1804 Known as America’s one of the most influential Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention and served as the first secretary of the treasury. He also fought in the American Revolutionary War and was considered as a leading votary of the strong central government. Recommended Lists:Military LeadersPolitical Leaders  5  Martin Luther King Jr. (African-American Civil Rights Movement Leader Who Used Civil Disobedience to Combat Racism) Martin Luther King Jr. 129 29 Listed In: Political Leaders Birthdate: January 15, 1929 Sun Sign: Capricorn Birthplace: Atlanta, Georgia, United States Died: April 4, 1968 A leader in the civil rights movement in the mid-twentieth century, Martin Luther King Jr. is best remembered for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience. A man of Christian faith who was inspired by Indian freedom fighter Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent activism, he was honored with the Nobel Peace Prize for fighting racial inequality.    6  Nelson Mandela (Anti-Apartheid Activist Who Served as the First President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999) Nelson Mandela 343 167 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: July 18, 1918 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Mvezo, South Africa Died: December 5, 2013 Revered as the Father of the Nation by the South Africans, Nelson Mandela was a statesman who rose to become the country’s first black head of state. He reconciled a nation divided along racial lines and dismantled the legacy of apartheid. Recommended Lists:PresidentsPrime Ministers  7  Napoleon Bonaparte (Emperor of the French (1804-1814)) Napoleon Bonaparte 167 77 Listed In: Emperors & Kings, Military Leaders, Political Leaders Birthdate: August 15, 1769 Sun Sign: Leo Birthplace: Ajaccio, France Died: May 5, 1821 French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte ruled as the French emperor from 1804 to 1814 and again in 1815. He strengthened France’s position in Europe through the Napoleonic Wars and extended his kingdom. However, he was eventually defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo and sent to exile.   8  Theodore Roosevelt (26th President of the United States (1901-1909)) Theodore Roosevelt 286 121 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: October 27, 1858 Sun Sign: Scorpio Birthplace: New York, United States Died: January 6, 1919 The 26th president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt is generally ranked as one of the five best presidents of the country. A man of many talents, he was a politician, conservationist, naturalist, and writer. He supported  Progressive Era policies in the early 20th century and championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies. Recommended Lists:RevolutionariesVice Presidents  9  Alexander the Great (King of Macedonia from 336 BC to 323 BC) Alexander the Great 141 58 Listed In: Emperors & Kings, Military Leaders Birthdate: 0356 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Pella, Greece Died: May 31, 0323 Counted amongst the greatest military commanders of all times, Alexander the Great successfully created one of the largest empires—from Macedonia to Persia and India—of the ancient world. The son of King of Macedonia, Philip II, he ascended the throne at the age of 20 and achieved unprecedented success before he died at the age of 33.    10  Julius Caesar (Roman General and Statesman) Julius Caesar 115 61 Listed In: Emperors & Kings, Military Leaders Birthdate: 0100 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Rome, Italy Died: March 15, 0044 Julius Caesar is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history and played an important role in the events that led to the downfall of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He assumed control of the government after a civil war. He was assassinated by rebel senators on the Ides of March, 44 BC.  11  Mikhail Gorbachev (Former General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) Mikhail Gorbachev 141 113 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: March 2, 1931 Sun Sign: Pisces Birthplace: Privol'noe, Russia Born into a poor peasant family, Mikhail Gorbachev went on to become one of the most influential figures of the Soviet Union. He served in various positions, most notably as the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He is regarded as one of the most prominent personalities of the 20th century.  12  George Patton (One of the Most Successful Combat Generals in United States History) George Patton 133 78 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: November 11, 1885 Sun Sign: Scorpio Birthplace: San Gabriel, California, United States Died: December 21, 1945 George Patton was a general of the US Army, remembered for his work as a commander of the Seventh United States Army during World War II. He is also remembered for commanding the Third Army in the Western Front in June 1944 after the Allied invasion of Normandy. His life and work inspired the 1970 epic biographical war film Patton.  13  Douglas MacArthur (American Military Leader Who Played a Prominent Role in the Pacific Theater During World War II) Douglas MacArthur 131 61 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: January 26, 1880 Sun Sign: Aquarius Birthplace: Little Rock, Arkansas, United States Died: April 5, 1964 American five-star general Douglas MacArthur was the field marshal of the Philippine Army. He and his father were the first father-son duo to win the Medal of Honor. after World War II, he became the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Japan and contributed to Japan’s reconstruction.  14  Robert E. Lee (Confederate General in the American Civil War) Robert E. Lee 106 82 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: January 19, 1807 Sun Sign: Capricorn Birthplace: Stratford, Virginia, United States Died: October 12, 1870 A commander of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War, Robert E. Lee commanded the Army of Northern Virginia. He was a skilled tactician who served in the US Army for 32 years. Brilliant from a young age, he was a top graduate of the US Military Academy. In his later years, he became president of Washington College.  15  Otto von Bismarck (Chancellor of the German Empire (1871 - 1890)) Otto von Bismarck 171 54 Listed In: Political Leaders Birthdate: April 1, 1815 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Schönhausen, Germany Died: July 30, 1898 Otto von Bismarck was a German statesman. Bismarck is credited with masterminding the unification of Germany and served as its first chancellor. He is also credited with creating the first modern welfare state in the world. Regarded as a hero by German nationalists, Otto von Bismarck's life has inspired a couple of TV series.  16  Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (Founder of the Republic of Turkey,) Mustafa Kemal Ataturk 426 80 Listed In: Presidents, Revolutionaries, Military Leaders Birthdate: May 19, 1881 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Thessaloniki Died: November 10, 1938 Kemal Atatürk, known as the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, was its first president. He unified Turkey into a secular country and invested in education and women’s rights. He also popularized the Latin-based Turkish alphabet and made minorities speak Turkish in public. His policies are known as “Kemalism.”   17  Spartacus (Thracian Gladiator and One of the Escaped Slave Leaders in the Third Servile War) Spartacus 65 26 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: 0103 BC Birthplace: Thrace Died: 0071 BC Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator who led the slave revolt called the Third Servile War, against the Roman Republic. However, historical accounts differ in their portrayal of Spartacus. He has inspired scores of books, films, and series, one of them being a Stanley Kubrick movie based on Howard Fast's novel.  18  Shinzō Abe (Former Prime Minister of Japan) Shinzō Abe 95 41 Listed In: Political Leaders, Prime Ministers Birthdate: September 21, 1954 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Tokyo Died: July 8, 2022 Shinzō Abe was a Japanese politician who became the longest-serving prime minister in the history of Japan after serving as prime minister of Japan from 2006 to 2007 and then from 2012 to 2020. Aged 52 at the time of assuming office as the prime minister, Abe was also the youngest Japanese post-war prime minister.  19  Hannibal (Carthaginian General and Statesman) Hannibal 51 20 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: 0247 BC Birthplace: Carthage, Tunisia Died: 0183 BC  20  Erwin Rommel (General) Erwin Rommel 116 66 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: November 15, 1891 Sun Sign: Scorpio Birthplace: Heidenheim an der Brenz, Germany Died: October 14, 1944 Known as The Desert Fox, Nazi field marshal Erwin Rommel led the Axis forces during World War II. For his plot to assassinate Hitler in 1944, he was given a choice to either commit suicide by consuming a cyanide pill or face a trial and execution. He chose the former.  21  Philip II of Spain (King of Spain (1556 - 1598), King of Portugal (1580 - 1598)) Philip II of Spain 48 26 Listed In: Emperors & Kings, Military Leaders Birthdate: May 21, 1527 Sun Sign: Gemini Birthplace: Valladolid, Spain Died: September 13, 1598 Philip II, son of Charles V, was a 16-th century king of Spain and Portugal. Also known as Philip the Prudent, he became the king of Ireland and England through his marriage to Mary I. Following Mary’s death, he attempted to overthrow Elizabeth I with his armada invasions, but failed.  22  Simon Bolivar (Revolutionary & Military Leader) Simon Bolivar 54 29 Listed In: Political Leaders, Revolutionaries, Presidents Birthdate: July 24, 1783 Sun Sign: Leo Birthplace: Caracas, Venezuela Died: December 17, 1830 After losing his parents as a child, Simon Bolivar also lost his Spanish wife to yellow fever later and thus decided to devote himself to politics. He was the first president of Gran Colombia and Bolivia, and also led Peru and Venezuela in their fight for freedom, against Spain.  23  Vladimir Lenin (Russian Revolutionary & Politician Who Served as the First Head of Government of Soviet Russia) Vladimir Lenin 89 75 Listed In: Revolutionaries, Political Leaders Birthdate: April 22, 1870 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Ulyanovsk, Russia Died: January 21, 1924 Vladimir Lenin played a key role in the history of Russian politics by developing a political ideology called Leninism. During and after his lifetime, Lenin had a massive influence over international communist movement. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential and significant personalities of the 20th century.  24  Lee Kuan Yew (Founding Father of Modern Singapore) Lee Kuan Yew 78 37 Listed In: Prime Ministers, Political Leaders Birthdate: September 16, 1923 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Singapore, Straits Settlements Died: March 23, 2015 Lawyer-turned-politician Lee Kuan Yew, also known as LKY, was the first prime minister of Singapore, from 1959 to 1990. He established the People's Action Party. He later also served as his country’s Senior Minister and Minister Mentor. He was also part of David Rockefeller's International Council and Forbes's Brain Trust.  25  Stonewall Jackson (One of the Best-Known Confederate Commanders During the American Civil War) Stonewall Jackson 64 32 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: January 21, 1824 Sun Sign: Aquarius Birthplace: Clarksburg, West Virginia, United States Died: May 10, 1863 Stonewall Jackson was a commander of the Confederate States Army. He played a major role as a Confederate general in the American Civil War, winning several significant battles in the Eastern Theater of the war. Considered one of the most tactically sound commanders in the history of the US, Jackson was idolized by George Patton, Chesty Puller, and Alexander Vandegrift.  26  Leonidas I (King of Ancient Sparta) Leonidas I 38 10 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: 0540 BC Birthplace: Sparta, Greece Died: August 11, 0480 Leonidas I was the king of the Greek city-state of Sparta from 489–480 BCE. He was the son of King Anaxandridas II. He is remembered for his participation in the Second Persian War, especially for his leadership at the Battle of Thermopylae. He died at the battle, gaining legendary status as the leader of the 300 Spartans.  27  William Tecumseh Sherman (Former Commanding General of the United States Army (1869 - 1883)) William Tecumseh Sherman 67 19 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: February 8, 1820 Sun Sign: Aquarius Birthplace: Lancaster, Ohio, United States Died: February 14, 1891 William Tecumseh Sherman served as the Union Army general during the American Civil War. He is best remembered for his “scorched earth” military policy and was known as "the first modern general.” His 1875 book Memoir, related his war experiences. He was associated with wildlife conservation in his later years.  28  Horatio Nelson (Admiral) Horatio Nelson 51 17 Listed In: Soldiers, Military Leaders Birthdate: September 29, 1758 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Burnham Thorpe Died: October 21, 1805 Horatio Nelson was a British flag officer whose inspirational leadership brought about several British naval victories, especially during the Napoleonic Wars. Regarded as one of Britain's heroic figures, Horatio Nelson's legacy remains influential and several monuments, including the Nelson Monument and Nelson's Column, have been created in his memory.  29  Georgy Zhukov (Military Commander) Georgy Zhukov 64 26 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: December 1, 1896 Sun Sign: Sagittarius Birthplace: Zhukov, Kaluga Oblast Died: June 18, 1974 Soviet general and Marshal of the Soviet Union, Georgy Zhukov, is remembered for overseeing some of the Red Army's most decisive victories during the Second World War. As a young man, he served in the First World War and the Russian Civil War. The recipient of four Hero of the Soviet Union awards, he was made the defence minister.  30  John J. Pershing (Former Military Officer Who Served as the Commander of the American Expeditionary Forces During World War I) John J. Pershing 59 18 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: September 13, 1860 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Laclede, Missouri, United States Died: July 15, 1948 John J. Pershing was a senior United States Army officer who served as the commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in World War I. In his later years, he mentored generals who led the United States Army during World War II.  He was promoted to General of the Armies rank, the highest possible rank in the United States Army.   31  Charles de Gaulle (Former French President & Army Officer Who Led 'Free France' against Nazi Germany in World War II) Charles de Gaulle 70 57 Listed In: Prime Ministers, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: November 22, 1890 Sun Sign: Sagittarius Birthplace: Lille, France Died: November 9, 1970 Charles de Gaulle was a French statesman and army officer. Charles de Gaulle fought against Nazi Germany in the Second World War by leading the Free French Forces. He also worked towards re-establishing democracy in France. He founded the Fifth Republic, France's current republican system, and rewrote the Constitution of France. He then served as the president of France.  32  Chester W. Nimitz (American Admiral Known for His Role as Commander in Chief of US Pacific Fleet in World War II) Chester W. Nimitz 50 17 Listed In: Military Leaders, Political Leaders Birthdate: February 24, 1885 Sun Sign: Pisces Birthplace: Fredericksburg, Texas, United States Died: February 20, 1966 Chester W. Nimitz was part of the United States Navy where he served as a fleet admiral. He played a key role during World War II, commanding the US Pacific Fleet and the Allied air, sea, and land forces. He also played a crucial role in acquiring approval to develop USS Nautilus, the first nuclear-powered submarine in the world.  33  Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian General Who Contributed to Italian Unification and the Creation of the Kingdom of Italy) Giuseppe Garibaldi 37 17 Listed In: Military Leaders, Revolutionaries Birthdate: July 4, 1807 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Nice, France Died: June 2, 1882 Italian general, patriot, and republican Giuseppe Garibaldi is remembered for the role he played in the Italian unification and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. He is considered one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland." A highly proficient military general, he also led the Expedition of the Thousand on behalf of Victor Emmanuel II. He died in 1882.  34  Kwame Nkrumah (First President of Ghana) Kwame Nkrumah 57 30 Listed In: Political Leaders Birthdate: September 21, 1909 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Nkroful Died: April 27, 1972 Kwame Nkrumah was a Ghanaian revolutionary and politician. He played an important role in the independence of the Gold Coast in 1957, after which he served as the first prime minister of Ghana from 1957 to 1960 and then as the first president of Ghana from 1960 to 1966. He also played an influential role as an advocate of Pan-Africanism.  35  Patrice Lumumba (1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo) Patrice Lumumba 42 23 Listed In: Prime Ministers, Political Leaders Birthdate: July 2, 1925 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Sankuru, Democratic Republic of the Congo Died: January 17, 1961 Congolese politician Patrice Lumumba was the first prime minister of the Republic of the Congo. He was an MNC leader and played a major role in turning Congo from a Belgian colony to an independent country. He was executed on the orders of Mobutu Sese Seko, following the Congo Crisis. freestar  36  El Cid (Military leader) El Cid 38 14 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: 1043 AD Birthplace: Vivar, Burgos Died: July 10, 1099 Spanish folk hero Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, or El Cid, was a Castilian knight from medieval Spain. He had been part of both Christian and Muslim armies and is also remembered for his heroic conquest of Valencia. He remains immortalized in the Spanish epic poem El Cantar de Mio Cid.  37  Tokugawa Ieyasu (Military Leader) Tokugawa Ieyasu 64 19 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: January 31, 1543 Sun Sign: Aquarius Birthplace: Okazaki Castle, Mikawa (now Okazaki, Japan) Died: June 1, 1616 Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder and first shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan. He is considered one of the three "Great Unifiers" of Japan. He was the son of Matsudaira Hirotada, a minor local warlord. He grew up to be an ambitious young man with exemplary leadership qualities and eventually founded the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan.   38  Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein (British Army Officer Who Served in the First and Second World Wars and the Irish War of Independence) Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein 43 24 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: November 17, 1887 Sun Sign: Scorpio Birthplace: Kennington, London, United Kingdom Died: March 24, 1976 Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, was a British Army officer who played important roles in World War I, World War II, and the Irish War of Independence. He commanded the British Eighth Army during the Second World War and also oversaw the operations during the Battle of Normandy. Bernard Montgomery has a couple of statues dedicated to him.  39  Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Founding Father of Bangladesh) Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 44 30 Listed In: Prime Ministers, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: March 17, 1920 Sun Sign: Pisces Birthplace: Tungipara, Bangladesh Died: August 15, 1975 Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, father of Bangladeshi prime minister Sheikh Hasina, is known as the "Father of the Nation" and “Bangabandhu" in Bangladesh. He was an Awami League leader and led the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. He was the first president of Bangladesh and later also served as the Bangladeshi PM.  40  David Ben-Gurion (Former Prime Minister of Israel) David Ben-Gurion 36 19 Listed In: Political Leaders, Prime Ministers Birthdate: October 16, 1886 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Płonsk, Poland Died: December 1, 1973 David Ben-Gurion was the founder of the State of Israel and also served as Israel’s first prime minister. He was the leader of the Jews in British Mandate Palestine and had also been the country’s defense minister and the chairman of the Provisional State Council of Israel. freestar  41  Chesty Puller ( United States Marine Corps Officer Who Served with Distinction in World War II and the Korean War) Chesty Puller 39 12 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: June 26, 1898 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: West Point, Virginia, United States Died: October 11, 1971 Chesty Puller was a U.S. Marine Corps officer who was part of the Banana Wars in Haiti and Nicaragua, and later served in World War II and the Korean War. He became the most decorated U.S. Marine, winning five Navy Crosses and an Army Distinguished Service Cross.  42  John F. Kennedy (35th President of the United States (1961 - 1963)) John F. Kennedy 571 164 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: May 29, 1917 Sun Sign: Gemini Birthplace: Brookline, Massachusetts, United States Died: November 22, 1963 The 35th President of the United States, John F Kennedy was a charismatic leader who, during his tenure, ably dealt with Cuban missile crisis, proposed public service programmes and lent support to the growing civil rights movement. Before becoming one of the youngest Presidents of the country, he served in the navy, U.S. House of Representatives and the US Senate.  43  Abraham Lincoln (16th President of the United States (1861-1865)) Abraham Lincoln 604 88 Listed In: Lawyers, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: February 12, 1809 Sun Sign: Aquarius Birthplace: Larue County, Kentucky, United States Died: April 15, 1865 A self-educated lawyer, Abraham Lincoln rose from modest background to become one of the greatest presidents of America. The 16th president of the country, who is also known as Honest Abe and the Great Emancipator, played a crucial role in establishing a truly democratic government, abolished slavery, modernised economy and led the country during the American Civil War.  44  Ronald Reagan (40th President of the United States (1981-1989)) Ronald Reagan 405 184 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: February 6, 1911 Sun Sign: Aquarius Birthplace: Tampico, Illinois, United States Died: June 5, 2004 An actor turned union leader turned politician, Ronald Wilson Reagan served as the 40th president of America. Hailed for his public speaking and communication skills, Reagan is one of the most popular Presidents of USA, mainly due to his ‘America First’ economic policies which led to a decrease in inflation and unemployment rates during his tenure.  45  George Washington (1st President of the United States (1789 - 1797)) George Washington 420 85 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: February 22, 1732 Sun Sign: Pisces Birthplace: Westmoreland County, Virginia, United States Died: December 14, 1799 America’s first president, George Washington led the country with integrity, firmness and prudence that made him one of the greatest presidents in American history. He became a national hero before assuming presidency, when he led the Continental Army to victory against the British during the American Revolution.  46  F. D. Roosevelt (32nd President of the United States) F. D. Roosevelt 128 62 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: January 30, 1882 Sun Sign: Aquarius Birthplace: Hyde Park, New York, United States Died: April 12, 1945 F D Roosevelt was the 32nd president of the United States and was in the office from 1933 to1945. Qualified as a lawyer, he entered politics as an ambitious young man, inspired by his relative Theodore Roosevelt, a fellow politician. F D Roosevelt had an illustrious political career and is rated by scholars among the nation's greatest presidents.  47  Thomas Jefferson (3rd President of the United States) Thomas Jefferson 298 85 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders, Diplomats Birthdate: April 13, 1743 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Shadwell, Virginia, United States Died: July 4, 1826 The 2nd Vice President and the 3rd President of America, Thomas Jefferson was one of the Founding Fathers of USA and the principal draftsman of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was a staunch advocate of democracy and a strong believer of individual rights and religious freedom, despite the fact that he himself owned nearly 600 slaves.  48  Khalid ibn al-Walid (Arab Muslim General Who Was a Part of the Islamic Expansion under Prophet Muhammad) Khalid ibn al-Walid 24 7 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: 0592 AD Birthplace: Mecca, Saudi Arabia Died: 0642 AD Arab Muslim army general Khalid ibn al-Walid had a prominent role in the the Ridda Wars against Arab rebels and in the campaigns in Sasanian Iraq and Byzantine Syria. He was a major figure in the Islamic expansion under the Prophet Muhammad and his successors, Abu Bakr and Umar.  49  Dwight D. Eisenhower (34th President of the United States (1953–1961)) Dwight D. Eisenhower 274 86 Listed In: Military Leaders, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: October 14, 1890 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Denison, Texas, United States Died: March 28, 1969 The 34th president of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower held office from 1953 to 1961. An army officer During World War II, he was part of many successful operations. He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, and his two terms as president saw widespread economic prosperity in USA. He is ranked high among American presidents.  50  Benjamin Franklin (One of the Founding Fathers of the United States) Benjamin Franklin 120 35 Listed In: Inventors, Political Leaders Birthdate: January 17, 1706 Sun Sign: Capricorn Birthplace: Boston, Massachusetts, United States Died: April 17, 1790 Benjamin Franklin is considered one of the founding fathers of the United States as he was a signer of both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. He was a writer, politician, scientist, inventor, civic activist, an accomplished diplomat and much more. He is a key figure in the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity.  51  Robert F. Kennedy (United States Senator, Brother of President John F. Kennedy) Robert F. Kennedy 162 75 Listed In: Political Leaders Birthdate: November 20, 1925 Sun Sign: Scorpio Birthplace: Brookline, Massachusetts Died: June 6, 1968 Robert F Kennedy, the brother of the 35th US president John F Kennedy, was a politician who served as US Attorney General and as US Senator. He was known as a civil rights and human rights activist and fought against organised crime and the Mafia. He opposed America’s involvement in the Vietnam War. He was assassinated by a 24-year-old Palestinian.  52  Imran Khan (22nd Prime Minister of Pakistan and Former Cricket Captain) Imran Khan 5690 578 Listed In: Cricketers, Prime Ministers Birthdate: October 5, 1952 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan Imran Khan is the former Prime Minister of Pakistan who was in office from 2018 to 2022. He is also the founder and chairman of the political party Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf. Before making an entry into politics, Imran Khan was an extremely popular international cricketer who led Pakistan to its first ever Cricket World Cup title in 1992. As a philanthropist, he established Pakistan’s first cancer hospital in Lahore.  53  Harry S. Truman (33rd President of the United States) Harry S. Truman 119 67 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: May 8, 1884 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Lamar, Missouri, United States Died: December 26, 1972 Harry Truman was the US president from 1945 to 1953 and his administration successfully guided the US economy through the post-war challenges. He established the Truman Doctrine to contain Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. He authorised the first and only use of nuclear weapons during a war when he sanctioned bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.  54  Benito Juarez (Lawyer, Politician) Benito Juarez 47 14 Listed In: Revolutionaries, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: March 21, 1806 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: San Pablo Guelatao, Mexico Died: July 18, 1872 Benito Juarez was a Mexican lawyer and politician. He served as the 26th president of Mexico from 1858 to 1872, becoming the first president of Mexico who was of indigenous origin. He died of a heart attack in 1872. To date,  he is revered as "a preeminent symbol of Mexican nationalism and resistance to foreign intervention."   55  John Adams (2nd President of United States (1797-1801)) John Adams 107 50 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: October 30, 1735 Sun Sign: Scorpio Birthplace: Braintree, Massachusetts, United States Died: July 4, 1826 One of the Founding Fathers of America, John Adams was a statesman, attorney, and diplomat who served as the second president of the United States. He was a principal leader of the American Revolution. As a lawyer, he was devoted to the right to counsel and presumption of innocence. His administration has been favorably ranked by historians and scholars.  56  Ulysses S. Grant (Civil War Hero and the 18th President of the United States) Ulysses S. Grant 110 48 Listed In: Military Leaders, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: April 27, 1822 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Point Pleasant, Ohio, United States Died: July 23, 1885 The 18th president of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant held office from 1869 to 1877. He led the Union Army as Commanding General of the United States Army during the American Civil War and was a war hero. As president, he stabilized the post-war national economy and created the Department of Justice. Historians generally recognize his presidential accomplishments.  57  T. E. Lawrence (Archaeologist & Army Officer Known for His Legendary War Activities in the Middle East During World War I) T. E. Lawrence 51 40 Listed In: Military Leaders, Archaeologists, Diplomats Birthdate: August 16, 1888 Sun Sign: Leo Birthplace: Tremadog, Carnarvonshire, Wales Died: May 19, 1935 T. E. Lawrence was a British army officer who participated in the Arab Revolt, against the Ottoman regime, during World War I. Nicknamed Lawrence of Arabia, he inspired a movie of the same name. His treatise of his war experiences was published as Seven Pillars of Wisdom, his best-known work.  58  Margaret Thatcher (The Longest-Serving British Prime Minister of the 20th Century) Margaret Thatcher 163 113 Listed In: Political Leaders, Prime Ministers Birthdate: October 13, 1925 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Grantham, Lincolnshire, England Died: April 8, 2013 United Kingdom’s first female Prime Minister and also the longest serving Prime Minister in the 20th century, Margaret Thatcher served three consecutive terms in the office from 1979 till 1990. Her political views and leadership approach, known as Thatcherism, got her the nickname of Iron Lady. Though controversial, she prominently ranks high in the list of the best British Prime Ministers.  59  Erich Ludendorff (German General, Politician and Military Theorist) Erich Ludendorff 36 17 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: April 9, 1865 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Kruszewnia, Poland Died: December 20, 1937 German military leader Erich Ludendorff gained fame with the victories at Liège and Tannenberg during World War I. He promoted the theory that Marxists, Jews, and Freemasons were responsible for Germany’s defeat in the war. He later became a military theorist, writing books such as The Total War.  60  Andrew Jackson (7th President of the United States) Andrew Jackson 101 69 Listed In: Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: March 15, 1767 Sun Sign: Pisces Birthplace: Waxhaws Died: June 8, 1845 Andrew Jackson was the 7th President of USA. His presidential reign has been termed as Jacksonian democracy and witnessed the shift of political power from established elites to ordinary voters. Coming from humble beginnings, Jackson knew the struggle of the masses and thus, worked towards creating a more inclusive country.  His picture has been featured on the front side of $20 bill since 1928.  61  King James I (King of Scotland) King James I 32 8 Listed In: Emperors & Kings Birthdate: June 19, 1566 Sun Sign: Gemini Birthplace: Edinburgh Castle, Scotland Died: March 27, 1625 King James I of England and Ireland was also the king of Scotland as James VI. Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, he believed in royal absolutism. He had major conflicts with the Parliament and its ever-growing powers, which eventually led to revolts against his successor, Charles I.  62  Ben Carson (U.S. Secretary of Housing & Urban Development (2017 – 2021)) Ben Carson 76 40 Listed In: Political Leaders, Surgeons, Neurologists Birthdate: September 18, 1951 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Detroit, Michigan, U.S. Neurosurgeon Ben Carson is credited with many pioneering neurosurgical procedures. He became a Library of Congress “Living Legend” and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He later contested in the 2016 presidential primaries, has authored numerous books, was a Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, and earned 60 honorary doctorates.  63  Scipio Africanus (One of the Best Military Commanders and Strategists of All Time) Scipio Africanus 26 10 Listed In: Military Leaders, Political Leaders Birthdate: 0236 BC Birthplace: Rome, Italy Died: 0183 BC Roman general and consul Scipio Africanus is remembered for his exploits during the Second Punic War. He gained the title Africanus by defeating Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. He was later dragged into a trial for accepting bribes and eventually left Rome to live in his villa in Liternum.  64  Charlemagne (1st Emperor of the Romans from 800 to 814) Charlemagne 57 21 Listed In: Emperors & Kings Birthdate: April 2, 0747 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Aachen, Germany Died: January 28, 0814 Also known as Charles the Great, Charlemagne ruled as the king of the Franks, king of the Lombards, and emperor of the Romans at different time periods. Not surprisingly, he had a major impact during the Early Middle Ages as he went about uniting the majority of central and western Europe, for which he is called the Father of Europe.  65  Ron DeSantis (46th Governor of Florida ) Ron DeSantis 82 61 Listed In: Lawyers, Political Leaders Birthdate: September 14, 1978 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Jacksonville, Florida, United States The current governor of Florida, Ron DeSantis became the youngest incumbent governor of a US state at the age of 42. Also an attorney and naval officer, Ron DeSantis was honored with the Bronze Star Medal, the Iraq Campaign Medal, the Global War on Terrorism Service Medal, and the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal for his military service.  66  Ashoka (Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty) Ashoka 137 17 Listed In: Emperors & Kings Birthdate: 0304 BC Birthplace: Pataliputra Died: 0232 BC Ashoka the Great of the Maurya Dynasty was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and ruled the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE. Following the death and destruction caused by the Kalinga War, which was part of his expansion plan, he converted to Buddhism and propagated the faith.  67  Nicholas II (Emperor of Russia (1894 - 1917)) Nicholas II 49 28 Listed In: Emperors & Kings, Political Leaders Birthdate: May 18, 1868 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Saint Petersburg, Russia Died: July 17, 1918 Nicholas II reigned as the last Emperor of All Russia from 1894 until his abdication in 1917. His reign oversaw a series of reforms in Russia. These reforms included the introduction of literacy programs, civil liberties, and methods to modernize the empire's infrastructure. However, these reforms were eventually undermined by Nicholas' love for autocratic rule.  68  A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (Aerospace Scientist & 11th President of India) A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 222 79 Listed In: Aerospace Engineers, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: October 15, 1931 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, India Died: July 27, 2015 A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, India’s 11th president, had earlier been an aerospace scientist at DRDO and ISRO. Known as the “People’s President” and the “Missile Man of India,” he was instrumental in India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests. He died of a cardiac arrest while delivering a lecture at IIM Shillong.  69  Marcus Aurelius (Philosopher) Marcus Aurelius 54 13 Listed In: Emperors & Kings, Philosophers Birthdate: April 26, 0121 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Rome, Italy Died: March 17, 0180 Marcus Aurelius played an important role in the Roman Empire. A Stoic philosopher, Marcus was part of the Five Good Emperors and the last emperor of the Pax Romana—a 200-year-long period of relative peace in the Roman Empire. Also a writer, his work Meditations is regarded by many as one of the greatest works of philosophy.  70  Skanderbeg (Military Commander) Skanderbeg 36 7 Listed In: Military Leaders, Soldiers Birthdate: May 6, 1405 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Principality of Kastrioti (Albania) Died: January 17, 1468 Skanderbeg was initially a hostage at the Ottoman court and served the Ottoman sultan for about 20 years. He was named the governor of the Sanjak of Dibra, following which he became the captain general under King Alfonso V of Northern Albania and fought against the Ottoman forces.  71  Moshe Dayan (Israeli Military & Political Leader) Moshe Dayan 38 22 Listed In: Political Leaders, Military Leaders Birthdate: May 20, 1915 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Degania Alef, Israel Died: October 16, 1981 Born to Ukrainian Jewish immigrants, military leader/politician Moshe Dayan, grew up to be an revered for his exploits against Israel’s Arab neighbors. His invasion of the Sinai peninsula is etched in his memoir, Diary of the Sinai Campaign. Following his death, his eye patch was sold on eBay for US$75,000.  72  Rodrigo Duterte (President of Philippines) Rodrigo Duterte 473 164 Listed In: Presidents Birthdate: March 28, 1945 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Maasin, Philippines The current president of the Philippines Rodrigo Duterte took office at age 71, making him the oldest president of the country. His war on drugs has had a major impact in the Philippines. Known for his straightforward attitude in public, Duterte has admitted to killing three men in 1988 in an attempt to save a girl from being raped.  73  Deng Xiaoping (Politician) Deng Xiaoping 42 26 Listed In: Philosophers, Political Leaders Birthdate: August 22, 1904 Sun Sign: Leo Birthplace: Guang'an, China Died: February 19, 1997 Deng Xiaoping led the People's Republic of China from 1978 to 1989. He ordered a crackdown on the Tiananmen Square protestors in 1989, leading to the June Fourth Massacre. However, he also earned the tag of the "Architect of Modern China" for ushering in a market economy in the country.  74  William Wallace (Scottish Knight Who Became One of the Main Leaders During the First War of Scottish Independence) William Wallace 45 20 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: April 3, 1270 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Elderslie, Renfrewshire, Scotland Died: August 23, 1305 William Wallace was a Scottish knight who played an important role in the First War of Scottish Independence. Since his death, Wallace has been viewed as an iconic figure whose story of bravery and valor has inspired several works of art, including the Academy Award-winning film Braveheart. Wallace has also inspired video games and brewery companies, such is his popularity.  75  Lord Mountbatten (Last Viceroy of British India) Lord Mountbatten 41 17 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: June 25, 1900 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Frogmore House, Windsor, England Died: August 27, 1979 The last Viceroy of India and the first governor-general of independent India, Lord Mountbatten was a British Royal Navy officer and statesman. Born to a prominent aristocratic family in England, he had a successful military career and was made the NATO Commander Allied Forces Mediterranean in his later career. He was assassinated in 1979.  76  Gamal Abdel Nasser (Political Leader of Egypt) Gamal Abdel Nasser 32 18 Listed In: Political Leaders, Presidents Birthdate: January 15, 1918 Sun Sign: Capricorn Birthplace: Bacos, Egypt Died: September 28, 1970 Gamal Abdel Nasser was an Egyptian politician. He was the second president of Egypt, serving from 1954 to 1970. Before becoming the president, Nasser played a crucial role in the Egyptian revolution of 1952, in which he led a group of army to overthrow King Farouk. Nasser remains an iconic figure, not just in Egypt, but the entire Arab world.  77  Clement Attlee (Former British Prime Minister) Clement Attlee 26 8 Listed In: Political Leaders, Prime Ministers Birthdate: January 3, 1883 Sun Sign: Capricorn Birthplace: Putney Died: October 8, 1967 Clement Attlee was a British politician. As the Prime Minister of the UK, Attlee organized the granting of independence to Pakistan and India. in 1947. He also oversaw the independence of Ceylon and Burma. Regarded as one of the greatest prime ministers of the UK, Clement Attlee has been the subject of several plays and TV series.   78  James Madison (4th President of The United States) James Madison 92 23 Listed In: Presidents, Diplomats, Political Leaders Birthdate: March 16, 1751 Sun Sign: Pisces Birthplace: Port Conway, Virginia, United States Died: June 28, 1836 James Madison played an important role in drafting the US Constitution and the US Bill of Rights and is hailed as the Father of the Constitution. He also co-wrote The Federalist Papers, considered to be a seminal work of political science. As president, he led the country into the 1812 war and historians place him as an above-average president.  79  Narendra Modi (14th Prime Minister of India) Narendra Modi 201 176 Listed In: Prime Ministers, Political Leaders Birthdate: September 17, 1950 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Vadnagar, Gujarat, India The 14th PM of India, Narendra Modi, created history when he became the first prime minister outside of the Congress party to win two consecutive terms with a full majority; he achieved this feat in 2019. From Bharatiya Janata Party worker to India’s PM, Modi’s journey is remarkable. However, he’s been plagued by controversies too, including the handling of 2002 Gujarat riots.  80  Che Guevara (Revolutionary) Che Guevara 79 64 Listed In: Revolutionaries, Military Leaders, Political Leaders Birthdate: June 14, 1928 Sun Sign: Gemini Birthplace: Rosario, Argentina Died: October 9, 1967 Argentine Marxist revolutionary, Che Guevara, was a major figure of the Cuban Revolution. A physician by profession, he developed radical views upon witnessing the injustices in the world and joined Fidel Castro’s revolutionary 26th of July Movement. Assassinated in 1967, he remains both a revered and reviled historical figure.  81  Jacinda Ardern (40th Prime Minister of New Zealand) Jacinda Ardern 140 95 Listed In: Political Leaders, Prime Ministers Birthdate: July 26, 1980 Sun Sign: Leo Birthplace: Hamilton, New Zealand Jacinda Ardern is the current Prime Minister of New Zealand. In October 2017, at the age of 37, she became the world's youngest female head of government. Ardern was praised for the way she led her country after the Christchurch mosque shootings in March 2019 and handled the COVID 19 pandemic. She led her party to victory in 2020 general elections.  82  Jomo Kenyatta (1st President of Kenya (1964–1978) and the 1st Prime Minister of Kenya (1963–1964)) Jomo Kenyatta 37 15 Listed In: Prime Ministers, Presidents, Political Leaders Birthdate: October 20, 1893 Sun Sign: Libra Birthplace: Gatundu, Kenya Died: August 22, 1978 After being held as a prisoner by the British for 9 years, anti-colonial activist Jomo Kenyatta was released shortly before Kenya achieved its independence, and became the country’s first prime minister and then its first president. The Father of the Nation, Kenyatta was also named Mzee, meaning “grand old man.”  83  Isoroku Yamamoto (Japanese Naval Officer Who Conceived The Pearl Harbor Attack in 1941) Isoroku Yamamoto 38 26 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: April 4, 1884 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Nagaoka, Niigata, Japan Died: April 18, 1943 Isoroku Yamamoto was a Marshal Admiral of the Imperial Japanese Navy. During World War II, he served as the commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet and oversaw operations such as the Pearl Harbor attack. He died when his fighter plane was shot down by the U.S. Air Forces.   84  Calvin Coolidge (30th President of the United States (1923–1929)) Calvin Coolidge 65 23 Listed In: Political Leaders Birthdate: July 4, 1872 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Plymouth, Vermont, United States Died: January 5, 1933 The 30th president of the United States, Calvin Coolidge started his career as a lawyer before becoming an influential American politician. A man of few words with a dry sense of humor, Calvin Coolidge represented the middle class, which worked in his favor. Despite being a reclusive politician, Coolidge gave 520 press conferences, making himself available to reporters quite often.  85  Solomon (King of Israel) Solomon 38 11 Listed In: Emperors & Kings Birthdate: 0990 BC Birthplace: Jerusalem, Israel Died: 0931 BC Also known as Jedidiah, Israeli king Solomon, known for his wisdom, is a figure that appears in the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, the Quran, and Hadiths. He ruled over the United Monarchy. His sins such as idolatry and marrying foreign women led to the disintegration of his kingdom.  86  William Howard Taft (27th President of the United States) William Howard Taft 70 37 Listed In: Chief Justices, Presidents Birthdate: September 15, 1857 Sun Sign: Virgo Birthplace: Cincinnati, Ohio, United States Died: March 8, 1930 The 27th president of the United States, William Howard Taft also served as the tenth Chief Justice of the US; he is the only person in the history of the US to have held both the offices. He had a great impact as chief justice and has been regarded as the greatest US chief justices of all time.  87  John Glenn (Tthe First American to Orbit the Earth) John Glenn 44 24 Listed In: Political Leaders, Astronauts Birthdate: July 18, 1921 Sun Sign: Cancer Birthplace: Cambridge, Ohio, United States Died: December 8, 2016 The first American to orbit the Earth, John Glenn was an astronaut, aviator, politician, and businessman. Beginning his career as an army man, he was a fighter pilot in World War II. He later joined NASA and was one of the Mercury Seven. Following his retirement from NASA, he became a politician and served in the US Senate.  88  Colin Powell (The First African-American Secretary of State) Colin Powell 46 27 Listed In: Diplomats, Political Leaders Birthdate: April 5, 1937 Sun Sign: Aries Birthplace: Harlem, New York, United States Died: October 18, 2021 A veteran politician who served as the 65th United States Secretary of State, Colin Powell was the first African-American Secretary of State. A member of the Republican Party, he was an army man prior to entering politics. He was a  four-star general at the time of his retirement. After leaving politics, he pursued a career as a public speaker.  89  Yi Sun-sin (Naval Commander) Yi Sun-sin 40 7 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: April 28, 1545 Sun Sign: Taurus Birthplace: Hansung Died: December 16, 1598 Yi Sun-sin was a Korean military general and admiral best remembered for his famous victories during the Imjin war, where his troops were victorious against the Japanese navy. Since the Imjin war, Yi Sun-sin has been revered in Korea as a national hero. Most of his victories were achieved despite being outnumbered by the enemies.  90  William Halsey Jr. (American Navy admiral in the First and Second World Wars) William Halsey Jr. 32 6 Listed In: Military Leaders Birthdate: October 30, 1882 Sun Sign: Scorpio Birthplace: Elizabeth, New Jersey, United States Died: August 16, 1959
Coins are pieces of hard material used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins are usually metal or alloy metal, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes: these coins are usually worth less than banknotes: usually the highest value coin in circulation (i.e. excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, for example due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, or the general public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of silver or gold (and, rarely, other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. The American Gold Eagle has a face value of US$50, and the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coins also have nominal (purely symbolic) face values (e.g. C$50 for 1 oz.); but the Krugerrand does not. Historically, a great quantity of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.[1] Today, the term coin can also be used in reference to digital currencies which are not issued by a state. As of 2013, examples include BitCoin and LiteCoin, among others. As coins have long been used as money, in some languages the same word is used for "coin" and "currency". Numismatics Claudius II coin (colourised).png Currency Coins ·  Banknotes ·  Forgery   Community currencies Company scrip ·  Coal scrip ·  LETS ·  Time dollars   Fictional currencies History Ancient currencies Greek ·  Roman ·  China ·  India   Byzantine Medieval currencies Modern currencies Africa ·  The Americas ·  Europe ·  Asia ·  Oceania   Production Mint ·  Designers ·  Coining ·   Milling ·  Hammering ·  Cast   Exonumia Credit cards ·  Medals ·  Tokens ·  Cheques   Notaphily Banknotes   Scripophily Stocks ·  Bonds   The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India & China around 600-700 BC. Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans.[2] Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire. Important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages (see Gold dinar, Solidus, Aureus, Denarius). Ancient and early medieval coins in theory had the value of their metal content, although there have been many instances throughout history of the metal content of coins being debased, so that the inferior coins were worth less in metal than their face value. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the jiaozi paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, but some coins continued to have the value of the gold or silver they contained throughout the Early Modern period. The penny was mint (coin)ed as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first copper pennies were minted in the United States in the 1790s.[3][citation needed] Silver content was reduced in many coins in the 19th century (use of billon), and the first coins made entirely of base metal (e.g. nickel, cupronickel, aluminium bronze), representing values higher than the value of their metal, were minted in the mid 19th century. Bronze Age predecessors[edit]    An Oxhide ingot from Crete. Late Bronze Age metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values. Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang.[4][5] These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese money, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.[6][7][8] These, as well as later Chinese bronzes, were replicas of knives, spades, and hoes, but not "coins" in the narrow sense, as they did not carry a mark or marks certifying them to be of a definite exchange value.[9] Iron Age[edit] Further information: Archaic period of ancient Greek coinage    1/3rd stater from Lydia, 6th century BC.   Electrum coin from Ephesus, 620-600 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch.    Anatolian gold coin from 4th century BC Mysia.    Greek drachma of Aegina. Obverse: Land Chelone / Reverse: ΑΙΓ(INA) and dolphin. The oldest Aegina Chelone coins depicted sea turtles and were minted ca. 700 BC.[10] The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia, especially with the kingdom of Lydia.[11] Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests.[12] Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins,[13] though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues, with King Alyattes of Lydia being a frequently mentioned originator of coinage.[14] The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold that was further alloyed with added silver and copper.[15] Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("legend" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). Because the oldest lion head "coins" were discovered in that temple, and they do not appear to have been used in commerce, these objects may not have been coins but badges or medals issued by the priests of that temple. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν (Potnia Thêrôn, "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the stag. A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend.[16] A famous early electrum coin, the most ancient inscribed coin at present known, is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema [17] interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light",[18] or "I am the tomb of light", or "I am the tomb of Phanes". The coins of Phanes are known to be amongst the earliest of Greek coins, a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a wealthy merchant, another that this coin is associated with Apollo-Phanes and, due to the Deer, with Artemis (twin sister of the god of light Apollo-Phaneos). Although only seven Phanes type coins were discovered, it is also notable that 20% of all early electrum coins also have the lion of Artemis and the sun burst of Apollo-Phaneos. Alternatively, Phanes may have been the Halicarnassian mercenary of Amasis mentioned by Herodotus, who escaped to the court of Cambyses, and became his guide in the invasion of Egypt in 527 or 525 BC. According to Herodotus, this Phanes was buried alive by a sandstorm, together with 50,000 Persian soldiers, while trying to conquer the temple of Amun–Zeus in Egypt.[19] The fact that the Greek word "Phanes" also means light (or lamp), and the word "sema" also means tomb makes this coin a famous and controversial one.[20] Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted on 700 BC,[21] either by the local Aegina people or by Pheidon king of Argos (who first set the standards of weights and measures). In the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, there is a unique electrum stater of Aegina.[10][22][unreliable source?] Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.[23] Classical Antiquity[edit] Further information: Ancient Greek coinage, Achaemenid coinage, Illyrian coinage, Roman currency, Coinage of India, Aureus, Solidus (coin), Denarius, and Antoninianus    Set of three roman aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. 69-96 AD. Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.[24] Coins were minted in the Achaemenid Empire, including the gold darics and silver sigloi. and with the Achemenid conquest of Gandhara under Darius the Great ca. 520 BC, the practice spread to the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.[25] These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in Persia, which were derived from the Greek/Anatolian type; they not disk-shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.[26] In China, early round coins appear in the 4th century BC. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued ca. 289 B Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat (law), and thus is determined by the free market only inasmuch as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: they are usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Some have suggested that such coins not be considered to be "true coins" (see below). Thus there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value. Coins may be in circulation with fiat values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the fiat declared face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar, US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between fiat values and metal values of coins causes coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realise the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.[30] Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years. A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality/beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance. Coins can be used as creative medium of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins. This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies then melt them down for their metal value. It costs more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so historically strict laws against alteration make more sense. 31 CFR § 82.2 goes on to state that: "(b) The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins." Ancient Rome was an Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world[1] with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population[2][3][4]) and covering 6.5 million square kilometers (2.5 million sq mi) during its height between the first and second centuries AD.[5][6][7] In its approximately 12 centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate Southern Europe, Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, parts of Northern Europe, and parts of Eastern Europe. Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world. It is often grouped into "Classical Antiquity" together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. The Romans are still remembered today, including names such as Julius Caesar, Cicero, and Augustus. Ancient Roman society contributed greatly to government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language, society and more in the Western world. A civilization highly developed for its time, Rome professionalized and greatly expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics[8][9][10] such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as large monuments, palaces, and public facilities. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged under the leadership of Augustus Caesar. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common ritual for a new emperor's rise.[11][12][13] States, such as Palmyra, temporarily divided the Empire in a third-century crisis. Soldier emperors reunified it, by dividing the empire between Western and Eastern halves. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-mediaeval "Dark Ages" of Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire survived this crisis and was governed from Constantinople after the division of the Empire. It comprised Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. Despite the later loss of Syria and Egypt to the Arab-Islamic Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire continued for another millennium, until its remnants were annexed by the emerging Turkish Ottoman Empire. This eastern, Christian, medieval stage of the Empire is usually called the Byzantine Empire by historians.   Ancient Rome topics     Outline ·  Timeline     Epochs Foundation ·  Monarchy  (Revolution)    ·  Republic ·  Empire  (Timeline, Pax Romana, Principate, Dominate, Decline, Fall)    ·  Western Empire / Eastern Empire     Constitution History ·  Kingdom ·  Republic ·  Empire ·  Late Empire ·  Senate ·  Legislative assemblies  (Curiate ·  Century ·  Tribal ·  Plebeian)    ·  Executive magistrates     Government Curia ·  Forum ·  Cursus honorum ·  Collegiality ·  Emperor ·  Legatus ·  Dux ·  Officium ·  Praefectus ·  Vicarius ·  Vigintisexviri ·  Lictor ·  Magister militum ·  Imperator ·  Princeps senatus ·  Pontifex Maximus ·  Augustus ·  Caesar ·  Tetrarch ·  Optimates ·  Populares ·  Province     Magistrates   Ordinary Tribune ·  Quaestor ·  Aedile ·  Praetor ·  Consul ·  Censor ·  Promagistrate ·  Governor     Extraordinary Dictator ·  Magister Equitum ·  Decemviri ·  Consular 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(Post-Caesarian ·  Liberators' ·  Sicilian ·  Fulvia's ·  Final)       Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic Wars  (Marcomannic ·  Alamannic ·  Gothic ·  Visigothic)    ·  Wars in Britain ·  Wars of Boudica ·  Armenian War ·  Civil War of 69 ·  Jewish Wars ·  Domitian's Dacian War ·  Trajan's Dacian Wars ·  Parthian Wars ·  Roman–Persian Wars ·  Civil Wars of the Third Century ·  Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire     Military history       [hide] v ·  t ·  e   Roman emperors     Principate  27 BC – 235 AD Augustus ·  Tiberius ·  Caligula ·  Claudius ·  Nero ·  Galba ·  Otho ·  Vitellius ·  Vespasian ·  Titus ·  Domitian ·  Nerva ·  Trajan ·  Hadrian ·  Antoninus Pius ·  Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus ·  Commodus ·  Pertinax ·  Didius Julianus ·  Septimius Severus ·  Caracalla ·  Geta ·  Macrinus with Diadumenian ·  Elagabalus ·  Alexander Severus     Crisis  235–284 Maximinus Thrax ·  Gordian I and Gordian II ·  Pupienus and Balbinus ·  Gordian III ·  Philip the Arab ·  Decius with Herennius Etruscus ·  Hostilian ·  Trebonianus Gallus with Volusianus ·  Aemilianus ·  Valerian ·  Gallienus with Saloninus ·  Claudius Gothicus ·  Quintillus ·  Aurelian ·  Tacitus ·  Florianus ·  Probus ·  Carus ·  Carinus ·  Numerian     Dominate  284–395 Diocletian ·  Maximian ·  Constantius Chlorus ·  Galerius ·  Severus ·  Maxentius ·  Maximinus Daia ·  Licinius with Valerius Valens and Martinianus ·  Constantine the Great ·  Constantine II ·  Constans I ·  Constantius II with Vetranio ·  Julian ·  Jovian ·  Valentinian I ·  Valens ·  Gratian ·  Valentinian II ·  Theodosius I     Western Empire  395–480 Honorius with Constantine III ·  Constantius III ·  Joannes ·  Valentinian III ·  Petronius Maximus ·  Avitus ·  Majorian ·  Libius Severus ·  Anthemius ·  Olybrius ·  Glycerius ·  Julius Nepos ·  Romulus Augustulus     Eastern/  Byzantine Empire  395–1204 Arcadius ·  Theodosius II ·  Marcian ·  Leo I the Thracian ·  Leo II ·  Zeno ·  Basiliscus ·  Anastasius I ·  Justin I ·  Justinian I ·  Justin II ·  Tiberius II Constantine ·  Maurice ·  Phocas ·  Heraclius ·  Constantine III ·  Heraklonas ·  Constans II ·  Constantine IV ·  Justinian II ·  Leontios ·  Tiberios III ·  Philippikos ·  Anastasios II ·  Theodosios III ·  Leo III the Isaurian ·  Constantine V ·  Artabasdos ·  Leo IV the Khazar ·  Constantine VI ·  Irene ·  Nikephoros I ·  Staurakios ·  Michael I Rangabe ·  Leo V the Armenian ·  Michael II the Amorian ·  Theophilos ·  Michael III ·  Basil I the Macedonian ·  Leo VI the Wise ·  Alexander ·  Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos ·  Romanos I Lekapenos ·  Romanos II ·  Nikephoros II Phokas ·  John I Tzimiskes ·  Basil II ·  Constantine VIII ·  Zoe ·  Romanos III Argyros ·  Michael IV the Paphlagonian ·  Michael V Kalaphates ·  Constantine IX Monomachos ·  Theodora ·  Michael VI Bringas ·  Isaac I Komnenos ·  Constantine X Doukas ·  Romanos IV Diogenes ·  Michael VII Doukas ·  Nikephoros III Botaneiates ·  Alexios I Komnenos ·  John II Komnenos ·  Manuel I Komnenos ·  Alexios II Komnenos ·  Andronikos I Komnenos ·  Isaac II Angelos ·  Alexios III Angelos ·  Alexios IV Angelos ·  Alexios V Doukas     Empire of Nicaea  1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris ·  Theodore I Laskaris ·  John III Doukas Vatatzes ·  Theodore II Laskaris ·  John IV Laskaris     Eastern/  Byzantine Empire  1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos ·  Andronikos II Palaiologos ·  Michael IX Palaiologos ·  Andronikos III Palaiologos ·  John V Palaiologos ·  John VI Kantakouzenos ·  Matthew Kantakouzenos ·  Andronikos IV Palaiologos ·  John VII Palaiologos ·  Andronikos V Palaiologos ·  Manuel II Palaiologos ·  John VIII Palaiologos ·  Constantine XI Palaiologos       Ancient Greece was a Greek civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period[citation needed] of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.[1] Included in ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Classical Greece began with the repelling of a Persian invasion by Athenian leadership. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture.[   Ancient Greece     Outline ·  Timeline     Periods Cycladic civilization ·  Minoan civilization ·  Mycenaean civilization ·  Greek Dark Ages ·  Archaic period ·  Classical Greece ·  Hellenistic Greece ·  Roman Greece     Geography Aegean Sea ·  Aeolis ·  Alexandria ·  Antioch ·  Crete ·  Cyprus ·  Cappadocia ·  Doris ·  Hellespont ·  Ephesus ·  Epirus ·  Ionian Sea ·  Ionia ·  Macedonia ·  Magna Graecia ·  Miletus ·  Pergamon ·  Peloponnesus ·  Pontus ·  Ancient Greek colonies     City states Argos ·  Athens ·  Byzantium ·  Chalkis ·  Corinth ·  Megalopolis ·  Rhodes ·  Syracuse ·  Sparta ·  Thebes     Politics Athenian democracy  (Agora ·  Areopagus ·  Ecclesia ·  Graphē paranómōn ·  Heliaia ·  Ostracism)    ·  Boeotarch ·  Boule ·  Koinon ·  Proxeny ·  Spartan Constitution  (Apella ·  Ephor ·  Gerousia ·  Harmost)    ·  Strategos ·  Synedrion ·  Tagus ·  Tyrant ·  Amphictyonic League     Rulers Kings of Argos ·  Archons of Athens ·  Kings of Athens ·  Kings of Commagene ·  Diadochi ·  Kings of Lydia ·  Kings of Macedonia ·  Kings of Paionia ·  Attalid kings of Pergamon ·  Kings of Pontus ·  Kings of Sparta ·  Tyrants of Syracuse     Life Agriculture ·  Calendar ·  Clothing ·  Cuisine ·  Economy ·  Education ·  Festivals ·  Homosexuality ·  Law ·  Marriage ·  Funeral and burial practices ·  Olympic Games ·  Pederasty ·  Philosophy ·  Prostitution ·  Religion ·  Slavery ·  Warfare ·  Wine     Military Wars ·  Athenian military ·  Antigonid Macedonian army ·  Army of Macedon ·  Ballista ·  Cretan archers ·  Hellenistic armies ·  Hippeis ·  Hoplite ·  Hetairoi ·  Macedonian phalanx ·  Phalanx formation ·  Peltast ·  Pezhetairos ·  Sarissa · 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  Star of David Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page semi-protected This article is about the hexagram as a Jewish symbol. For other uses, see Hexagram. "Jewish Star" redirects here. For other uses, see The Jewish Star (disambiguation). "Magen David" redirects here. For the halakhic commentator, see David HaLevi Segal. The Star of David as depicted on the flag of Israel. The Star of David (Hebrew: מָגֵן דָּוִד, romanized: Magen David, lit. 'Shield of David')[a] is a generally recognized symbol of both Jewish identity and Judaism.[1] Its shape is that of a hexagram: the compound of two equilateral triangles. A derivation of the seal of Solomon, which was used for decorative and mystical purposes by Muslims and Kabbalistic Jews, its adoption as a distinctive symbol for the Jewish people and their religion dates back to 17th-century Prague.[2] In the 19th century, the symbol began to be widely used among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe, ultimately coming to be used to represent Jewish identity or religious beliefs.[2][3] It became representative of Zionism after it was chosen as the central symbol for a Jewish national flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.[4] By the end of World War I, it had become an internationally accepted symbol for the Jewish people, being used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers.[5] Today, the star is used as the central symbol on the national flag of the State of Israel. Roots Unlike the menorah,[2] the Lion of Judah, the shofar and the lulav, the hexagram was not originally a uniquely Jewish symbol.[6] The hexagram, being an inherently simple geometric construction, has been used in various motifs throughout human history, which were not exclusively religious. It appeared as a decorative motif in both 4th-century synagogues and Christian churches in the Galilee region.[7][8] Gershom Scholem writes that the term "seal of Solomon" was adopted by Jews from Islamic magic literature, while he could not assert with certainty whether the term "shield of David" originated in Islamic or Jewish mysticism.[2] Leonora Leet argues though that not just the terminology, but the esoteric philosophy behind it had pre-Islamic Jewish roots and provides among other arguments the Talmud's mention of the hexagram as being engraved on Solomon's seal ring.[9] She also shows that Jewish alchemists were the teachers of their Muslim and Christian counterparts, and that a way-opener such as Maria Hebraea of Alexandria (2nd or 3rd century CE; others date her earlier) already used concepts which were later adopted by Muslim and Christian alchemists and could be graphically associated with the symbolism of the upper and lower triangles constituting the hexagram, which came into explicit use after her time.[9] The hexagram however only becomes widespread in Jewish magical texts and amulets (segulot) in the early Middle Ages, which is why most modern authors have seen Islamic mysticism as the source of the medieval Spanish Kabbalists' use of the hexagram.[9][10] The name "Star of David" originates from King David of ancient Israel. Use as Jewish emblem Only around one millennium later, however, the star would begin to be used as a symbol to identify Jewish communities, a tradition that seems to have started in Prague before the 17th century, and from there spread to much of Eastern Europe.[2][11] In the 19th century, it came to be adopted by European Jews as a symbol to represent Jewish religion or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion's believers.[2][12] The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897, due to its usage in some Jewish communities and its lack of specifically religious connotations.[3][13] It was not considered an exclusively Jewish symbol until after it began to be used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers in World War I.[5] History of Jewish usage Early use as an ornament The Star of David in the oldest surviving complete copy of the Masoretic text, the Leningrad Codex, dated 1008. The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of the 3rd–4th century Khirbet Shura synagogue in the Galilee.[14][15] Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum.[14] The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain.[14] Kabbalistic use Page of segulot in a medieval Kabbalistic grimoire (Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, 13th century) A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE.[16][17] The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.[18] Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David". In the Renaissance, in the 16th-century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha-Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.[19][20][21] However, these seder-plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.[22] According to G. S. Oegema (1996) Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown", "Wisdom", and "Insight", below the other seven.[23][page needed] Similarly, M. Costa[full citation needed] wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram. Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.[24] The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts[unreliable source?] associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva).[25] Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men," representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel. Official usage in Central European communities Historical flag of the Jewish community in Prague In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV approved for the Jews of Prague a red flag with a hexagram.[26] In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Buda, now part of Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars.[27] In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers...and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David." In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue" on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition of their contribution to the city's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a "Swedish star" placed in the center of the hexagram.[26] As a symbol of Judaism and the Jewish community Herzl's proposed flag, as sketched in his diaries. Although he drew a Star of David, he did not describe it as such Max Bodenheimer's (top left) and Herzl's (top right) 1897 drafts of the Zionist flag, compared to the final version used at the 1897 First Zionist Congress (bottom) The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.[3][13] A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat: We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working-day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.[28] David Wolffsohn (1856–1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote: At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag—and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being. In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports. Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship.[29] Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.[30][31][32][33] In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard" Leonard[34] (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s.[citation needed] World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933;[35] Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.[citation needed] The Holocaust Main article: Yellow badge The yellow badge A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the Warthegau, a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941, and signed by Reinhard Heydrich)[36] and was gradually introduced in other Nazi-occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.[37] Contemporary use The flag of Israel The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country's establishment. The origins of the flag's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion". Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls. Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David" or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David") is Israel's only official emergency medical, disaster, and ambulance service. It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was [...] argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality."[38] Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.[39] Use in sports Béla Guttmann, footballer for Hakoah Vienna Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes. In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong-willed" and "strong-minded", major leaguer Mike "Superjew" Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.[40][41][42][43][44][45] NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish,[46] had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010.[47][48] NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders.[49][50][51] Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue-and-white Magen David symbol on her golf apparel.[52][53] In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber" Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks,[54] and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.[55][56][57] Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young" Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson.[58][failed verification][59][60][61][62][63][64][65] Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka" Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David".[66][67] Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.[68] Etymology The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th-century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid" (without specifying its shape).[69] The name 'Shield of David' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu/Gladden us" blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.[70] The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David" is Eshkol Ha-Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE: Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc. ...Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David", is placed beside the name of each angel.[71] This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way. Miscellaneous In Unicode, the "Star of David" symbol is U+2721 (✡︎). The world's largest Star of David (2,400 metres (7,900 ft) diameter) is at Harold Holt Naval Communications Station, Exmouth, Australia at 21.815927°S 114.165888°E.[72] (Google Earth view) Some criminal gangs, including the Gangster Disciples and those affiliated with the Folk Nation, use the Star of David as their symbol. In the case of the Gangster Disciples this is a reference to the group's founder, David Barksdale, also known as "King David". The Flag and Badge of British Colonial Nigeria contained a Star of David-like hexagram from 1914 to 1952. The insignia of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service has included a hexagram since the end of the 19th century.[73] Gallery Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul   Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed   The Magen David Adom emblem The Magen David Adom emblem   A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David   A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment. A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.   Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948–present Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948–present   Stained glass Star of David Stained glass Star of David   USVA headstone emblem 3 USVA headstone emblem 3   USVA headstone emblem 44 USVA headstone emblem 44   Morocco horse cover embroidery Morocco horse cover embroidery See also Judaism portal Anahata Chai symbol G2 (mathematics) Merkaba Shatkona, an identical Hindu symbol Kagome crest, an identical Japanese symbol Star of Bethlehem Star of David theorem Star of Lakshmi Stars of David: Prominent Jews Talk About Being Jewish, 2005 book Unicursal hexagram Zoigl, a make of German beer which uses ✡︎ as its symbol Seal of Solomon Notes  Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ [maːˈɣeːn daːˈwiːð], Tiberian [mɔˈɣen dɔˈvið], Modern Hebrew [maˈɡen daˈvid], Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid [ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid] or Mogen Dovid, Ladino: Estreya de David. References  Jacob Newman; Gabriel Sivan; Avner Tomaschoff (1980). Judaism A–Z. World Zionist Organization. p. 116.  Berlin, ed. (2011). p. 463.  "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA).  "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "The Star of David became the emblem of Zionist Jews everywhere. Non-Jews regarded it as representing not only the Zionist current in Judaism, but Jewry as a whole."  Reuveni (2017). p. 43.  "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "Unlike the menora (candelabrum), the Lion of Judah, the shofar (ram's horn) and the lulav (palm frond), the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol."  "King Solomon's Seal". www.mfa.gov.il. Retrieved December 12, 2021.  Scholem 1949, p. 244:"It is not to be found at all in medieval synagogues or on medieval ceremonial objects, although it has been found in quite a number of medieval Christian churches again, not as a Christian symbol but only as a decorative motif. The appearance of the symbol in Christian churches long before its appearance in our synagogues should warn the overzealous interpreters. "  Leet, Leonora (1999). "The Hexagram and Hebraic Sacred Science" in: The Secret Doctrine of the Kabbalah, pp. 212–217. Re-accessed 5 June 2022.  Scholem 1949, p. 246:"In the beginning these designs had no special names or terms, and it is only in the Middle Ages that definite names began to be given to some of those most widely used. There is very little doubt that terms like these first became popular among the Arabs, who showed a tremendous interest in all the occult sciences, arranging and ordering them systematically long before the Practical Cabalists thought of doing so. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that for a long time both the five-pointed and the six-pointed stars were called by one name, the "Seal of Solomon," and that no distinction was made between them. This name is obviously related to the Jewish legend of Solomon's dominion over the spirits, and of his ring with the Ineffable Name engraved on it. These legends expanded and proliferated in a marked fashion during the Middle Ages, among Jews and Arabs alike, but the name, "Seal of Solomon," apparently originated with the Arabs. This term they did not apply to any one design exclusively; they applied it to an entire series of seven seals to which they attributed extreme potency in putting to flight the forces of the Demon."  Scholem 1949, p. 250:"From Prague this official use of the symbol spread out. In 1655 it is found on the seal of the Viennese community, and in 1690 on the seal of the community of Kremsier, in Moravia. On the wall of the old synagogue of the community of Budweis (Southern Bohemia), which was abandoned by the Jews in 1641, there are representations of Shields of David alternating with roses; apparently, this is the oldest synagogue outside of Prague on which this symbol is to be found. In his youth, R. Jonathan Eybeschuetz might have been able to see it on the seal of the community of EybeSchuetz. A number of communities in Moravia used as a seal the Shield of David alone, with the addition of the name of the community. Others had on their seals a lion holding the Shield of David, like the community of Weiskirchen at the beginning of the 18th century. In very isolated instances the figure of the Shield of David was used in southern Germany also, doubtless under the influence of the Prague community. In other countries, we do not generally find the Shield of David in use before the beginning of the 19th century, either on community seals, or on the curtains of the Ark, or on Torah mantles."  "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "According to Scholem, the motive for the widespread use of the Star of David was a wish to imitate Christianity. During the Emancipation, Jews needed a symbol of Judaism parallel to the cross, the universal symbol of Christianity."  Scholem 1949, p. 251:"Then the Zionists came, seeking to restore the ancient glories—or more correctly, to change the face of their people. When they chose it as a symbol for Zionism at the Basle Congress of 1897, the Shield of David was possessed of two virtues that met the requirements of men in quest of a symbol: on the one hand, its wide diffusion during the previous century—its appearance on every new synagogue, on the stationery of many charitable organizations, etc.—had made it known to everybody; and on the other, it was not explicitly identified with a religious association in the consciousness of their contemporaries. This lack became its virtue. The symbol did not arouse memories of the past: it could be filled with hope for the future."  "King Solomon-s Seal", with credits Archived October 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs  Dan Urman & Paul V.M. Fesher (eds.). Ancient Synagogues, p. 612, BRILL, 1998  Herbert M. Adler, JQR, vol. 14:111. Cited in "Magen David", Jewish Encyclopedia, retrieved May 28, 2010.  "The Star of David - Magen David". Archived from the original on October 7, 2011. Retrieved May 11, 2011.  www.markfoster.net Archived July 22, 2011, at the Wayback Machine  Rabbi Blumenkrantz, "The Seder", The Laws of Pesach: A Digest 2010: Chap. 9. See also, [1] Archived March 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, retrieved May 28, 2010.  Yirmiyahu Ullman (May 5, 2008). "Magen David". Ohr Samayach. Retrieved May 28, 2010.  Simon Jacobson, op-ed, "Tzav-Passover: The Seder Plate" Archived August 10, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, A Meaningful Life, retrieved May 28, 2010.  Gershom Scholem shows conclusively they do not form a hexagram. See, Hatakh ha-Zahav, Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen-David (Poalim, Hebrew) 1990:156.  G. S. Oegema, Realms of Judaism. The history of the Shield of David, the birth of a symbol (Peter Lang, Germany, 1996) ISBN 3-631-30192-8  Hatakh ha-Zahav, Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen-David (Poalim, 1990, Hebrew) p. 156  Rabbi Naftali Silberberg, "What is the Mystical Significance of the Star of David?"  Kashani, Reuven. "The National Flag" The Israel Review of Arts and Letters, 1998/107–8, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1999).  Schwandtner, Scriptores Rerum Hungaricarum, ii. 148. Facsimile in M. Friedmann, Seder Eliyahu Rabbah ve-Seder Eliyahu Ztṭa, Vienna, 1901  "The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jewish State, by Theodor Herzl". Retrieved April 18, 2016.  Brenner, Michael; Gideon Reuveni, Gideon, eds. (2006). Emancipation through muscles: Jews and sports in Europe. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 111, 119, 122. ISBN 9780803205420. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Encyclopedia of American Jewish history. ABC-CLIO. 2007. ISBN 9781851096381. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Outside the box: a memoir. Rodale. 2006. ISBN 9781594862571. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Philadelphia Jewish life, 1940–2000. Temple University Press. 2006. ISBN 9781566399999. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Kirsch, George B; Harris, Othello; Nolte, Claire Elaine (2000). Encyclopedia of ethnicity and sports in the United States. ISBN 9780313299117. Retrieved February 19, 2011.  Silverman (2007). p. 208.  Silverman (2007). p. 218.  "Polizeiverordnung über die Kennzeichnung der Juden [Police Regulation on the identification of Jews]". Verfassungen.de (in German). September 1, 1941. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2015. Der Judenstern besteht aus einem handtellergroßen, schwarz ausgezogenen Sechs‌stern aus gelbem Stoff mit der schwarzen Aufschrift 'Jude'. Er [sic] ist sichtbar auf der linken Brustseite des Kleidungs‌stücks fest aufgenäht zu tragen. [Translation: The Jews' star consists of a palm-sized, black solid six-pointed star made of yellow fabric with a black inscription [which says] 'Jew'. [It must be] visibly and firmly sewn on the left chest of the garment.] (This policy came into full force as of September 19, 1941)  "Omaha the Hard Way: Conversation with Hal Baumgarten". Historynet.com. February 15, 2017. Retrieved July 8, 2019.  Geneva Vote Paves the Way for MDA Red Cross Membership, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, December 8, 2005  Magen David: Shield or Star? On Language, by Philologos, The Forward June 30, 2006  Paul Lukas (April 2, 2007). "Uni Watch: Passover edition". ESPN. p. 2. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Beggy, Carol; Shanahan, Mark (September 24, 2004). "Sox pair weigh holiday play; councilor swept up". The Boston Globe. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  "Jewish Stars". Cleveland Jewish News. April 16, 2010. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Ain, Stewart (September 8, 2006). "Fast Balls Keep Flying At Mel". The Jewish Week. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  "It started as a great idea, then fate stepped in". Jewish Tribune. September 29, 2005. Archived from the original on September 25, 2009. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Salkin, Allen. "Where have you gone, Sandy Koufax?". Charlotte.creativeloafing.com. Archived from the original on July 8, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Isabel Kershner and Harvey Araton "Amar'e Stoudemire's Quest to Israel", The New York Times, August 3, 2010  Klopman, Michael (August 2, 2010). "Is Amare Stoudemire Jewish? Knick Shows Star Of David Tattoo, Wears Yarmulke (VIDEO)". The Huffington Post. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  "Knicks star Amar'e Stoudemire keeps things kosher". New York Post. August 20, 2010. Archived from the original on November 3, 2010. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  "Are you ready for some football? » Kaplan's Korner on Jews and Sports". New Jersey Jewish News. September 14, 2009. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Whisler, John (August 1, 2009). "Cowboys add muscle on defense with Olshanksy". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  "Tenacious D – by Nisha Gopalan". Tablet Magazine. November 14, 2008. Archived from the original on July 4, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  "Yom Kippur a No Go for Young Golfer Laetitia Beck". Algemeiner Journal. October 7, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2013.  Sagui, Miki (September 7, 2011). "Laetitia Beck, Israel's Tiger Woods". Ynetnews. Retrieved September 17, 2013.  Silverman (2007). p. 103.  "Dodger-Giant Rivalry Downright Nostalgic", The Spokesman-Review, September 24, 1978  "The Commander". New York. Vol. 39. 2006. p. 32. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Pat Putnam (December 18, 1978). "Mom is Jewish, Dad is Italian, and Mike Rossman—the Star". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Silverman (2007).  The 1930s. Weigl Educational Publishers Limited. 2000. ISBN 9781896990644. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Schaap, Jeremy (2007). Triumph: the untold story of Jesse Owens and Hitler's Olympics. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 85. ISBN 978-0618688227. Retrieved February 17, 2011. skater star of david.  "On the Rise: 'Hebrew Hammer' Cletus Seldin Seeks to Join Ranks of Historic Jewish Boxers". Algemeiner Journal. August 3, 2012.  Ellis Island to Ebbets Field: Sport and the American Jewish Experience. Oxford University Press. 1993. p. 120. ISBN 9780195359008. Retrieved February 17, 2011. star of david.  Vials, Chris (2009). Realism for the masses: aesthetics, popular front pluralism, and U.S. culture, 1935–1947. ISBN 9781604733495. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Wiggins, David. Sport in America eBook. Vol. II. ISBN 9781450409124. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Katz, Yossi (2010). A Voice Called: Stories of Jewish Heroism. Gefen Publishing. p. 75. ISBN 9789652294807. Retrieved February 19, 2011. star of david boxer.  "Papa Said Knock You Out: Issue 53's Zachary Wohlman Fights This Thursday". Mass Appeal. November 11, 2013. Archived from the original on March 31, 2014. Retrieved March 31, 2014.  Isaac Barrio (July 19, 2006). "Dmitriy "STAR OF DAVID" Salita in Main Event". Hardcoreboxing.net. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  Football: a sociology of the global game. Wiley-Blackwell. 1999. ISBN 9780745617695. Retrieved February 17, 2011.  "Magen Dawid", Jewish Encyclopida, retrieved May 28, 2010.  A similar term, "Shield of Abraham" appears in the first blessing of the "Amidah" prayer, which was written in early Rabbinic times (around year 1, a millennium before the first documentation of the term in reference to a sixGpoint star). That term is probably based on Genesis 15:1, where God promises to shield Abraham.  Eshkol Ha-Kofer by Judah Hadassi, 12th century CE  "Australian Heritage Database". Retrieved April 18, 2016.  "The star of David". The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper. Retrieved April 18, 2016. Bibliography "The Flag and the Emblem". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). Archived from the original on May 13, 2019. Retrieved April 18, 2016. Berlin, Adele, ed. (2011). "Magen David". The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 463. ISBN 9780199730049. Retrieved June 5, 2022. Reuveni, Gideon (2017). Consumer Culture and the Making of Modern Jewish Identity. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9781107011304. Retrieved June 5, 2022. Scholem, Gershom (1949). "The Curious History of the Six-Pointed Star. How the "Magen David" Became the Jewish Symbol" (PDF). Commentary. Vol. 8. pp. 243–251. Silverman, B.P. Robert Stephen (2007). The Big Book of Jewish Sports Heroes. New York, NY: S.P.I. Books. ISBN 9781561719075. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Further reading Handelman, Don; Shamgar-Handelman, Lea (1990). "Shaping Time: The Choice of the National Emblem of Israel". In Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney (ed.). Culture Through Time: Anthropological Approaches. Stanford University Press. pp. 193–226. ISBN 9780804717915. Scholem, Gershom (1971). "The Star of David: History of a Symbol". The Messianic idea in Judaism and other essays on Jewish spirituality. Schocken Books. pp. 257–281. ISBN 9780805203622. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Star of David. Star of David Technology in Jewelry Today 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia on Jewish symbols The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David The Mystical Significance of the Star of David Magen David: From mystical talisman to Zionist symbol -Ynetnews Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata FranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited States Categories: DavidJewish symbolsStar symbolsHeraldic chargesObjects believed to protect from evilAmuletsTalismansJewish culture 1290 Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "1290" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Millennium: 2nd millennium Centuries: 12th century13th century 14th century Decades: 1270s1280s1290s1300s1310s Years: 1287128812891290129112921293 1290 by topic Leaders Political entitiesState leadersReligious leaders Birth and death categories Births – Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments – Disestablishments Art and literature 1290 in poetry vte 1290 in various calendars Gregorian calendar 1290 MCCXC Ab urbe condita 2043 Armenian calendar 739 ԹՎ ՉԼԹ Assyrian calendar 6040 Balinese saka calendar 1211–1212 Bengali calendar 697 Berber calendar 2240 English Regnal year 18 Edw. 1 – 19 Edw. 1 Buddhist calendar 1834 Burmese calendar 652 Byzantine calendar 6798–6799 Chinese calendar 己丑年 (Earth Ox) 3986 or 3926     — to — 庚寅年 (Metal Tiger) 3987 or 3927 Coptic calendar 1006–1007 Discordian calendar 2456 Ethiopian calendar 1282–1283 Hebrew calendar 5050–5051 Hindu calendars  - Vikram Samvat 1346–1347  - Shaka Samvat 1211–1212  - Kali Yuga 4390–4391 Holocene calendar 11290 Igbo calendar 290–291 Iranian calendar 668–669 Islamic calendar 688–689 Japanese calendar Shōō 3 (正応3年) Javanese calendar 1200–1201 Julian calendar 1290 MCCXC Korean calendar 3623 Minguo calendar 622 before ROC 民前622年 Nanakshahi calendar −178 Thai solar calendar 1832–1833 Tibetan calendar 阴土牛年 (female Earth-Ox) 1416 or 1035 or 263     — to — 阳金虎年 (male Iron-Tiger) 1417 or 1036 or 264 King Andrew III (r. 1290–1301) Year 1290 (MCCXC) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe July 10 – King Ladislaus IV (the Cuman) is assassinated at the castle of Körösszeg (modern Romania). He is succeeded by Andrew III (the Venetian), after an election by Hungarian nobles, who is crowned by Archbishop Lodomer as new ruler of Hungary and Croatia in Székesfehérvár on July 23.[1][2] December 18 – King Magnus III (Birgersson) dies after a 15-year reign. He is succeeded by his 10-year-old son Birger (Magnusson). Although, Sweden is an elective monarchy, Birger had already been appointed heir to the throne in 1284. England July 18 – Edict of Expulsion: King Edward I (Longshanks) orders all Jews (at this time probably numbering around 2,000) to leave the country by November 1 (All Saints' Day);[3] on the Hebrew calendar this is Tisha B'Av, a day that commemorates many calamities. Quia Emptores, a statute passed by Edward I (Longshanks), puts an end to the practice of subinfeudations. The statute allows land to be sold according to royal approval, as long as the new owner answers directly to his lord or the king. September – The 7-year-old Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen-designate and heir to the crown of Scotland, dies en route to the British Isles in Orkney – leading to a succession crisis known as Competitors for the crown of Scotland. November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I (Longshanks), dies while traveling in the North. She has been suffering from illness for some time, and the cold and dampness of the winter months probably aggravate her condition. December – Edward I (Longshanks) travels with the body of Eleanor of Castile from Lincoln to London. Remembering his wife, Edward erects a series of crosses at each location that the body rests over night. These are known as the twelve Eleanor crosses. Winter – The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed during the reign of Edward I (Longshanks), which prevents land from passing into the possession of the Church. Levant June – Genoa concludes a new commercial treaty with the Mamluks; five galleys sent by King James II (the Just) join the Venetian Crusader fleet (some 20 ships) on its way to Acre. On board of the fleet are Italian urban militias and mercenary forces under Seneschal Jean I de Grailly, who have fought for the Papal States in the so-called Italian Crusades.[4] August – Italian Crusaders massacre Muslim merchants and peasants, and some local Christians in Acre. Some claim it began at a drunken party – others that a European husband found his wife making love to a Muslim. The barons and local knights try to rescue a few Muslims and take them to the safety of the castle, while some ringleaders are arrested.[5] August 30 – Survivors and relatives of the massacre at Acre take bloodstained clothing to Sultan Qalawun (the Victorious) in Cairo, who demands that the leaders of the riot be handed over for trial. But the nobles refuse to send the ringleaders, Qalawun now got legal clearance from the religious authorities in Cairo to break the truce with Crusader states.[6] October – Qalawun (the Victorious) orders a general mobilization of the Mamluk forces. In a council, is decided that a peace delegation is sent to Cairo under Guillaume de Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Knights Templar. But Qalawun demands huge compensation for those killed in Acre, and sends a Syrian army to the coast of Palestine, near Caesarea.[7] November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious) dies as the Egyptian Mamluk army sets out for Acre. He is succeeded by his eldest son Al-Ashraf Khalil as ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate. Kahlil orders his allies and tributaries in Syria to prepare for a campaign next spring. Governors and castle commanders are ordered to assemble siege equipment and armor.[8] Asia June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, is murdered and succeeded by Jalal ud-Din Khalji (or Firuz Shah I), founder of the Khalji Dynasty. Ending Mamluk rule and instigating the Khalji Revolution.[9] September 27 – The 6.8 Ms  Zhili earthquake affects the province of Zhili in China, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 7,270–100,000 people. By topic Art and Culture June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, muse of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, dies. In his Divine Comedy (La Divina Commedia), he transforms his memory of Beatrice into an allegory of divine love.[10] Climate and Weather Year without winter – An exceptionally rare instance of uninterrupted transition, from autumn to the following spring, in England and the mainland of Western Europe.[11] Education March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon by Denis I (the Poet King). He decrees that Portuguese is the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity. Literature Dnyaneshwari is written in India. This holy book is a commentary on Bhagvad Gita and is narrated by St. Dnyaneshwar. Births January 3 – Constance of Portugal, queen consort of Castile (d. 1313) January 6 – Otto Bodrugan, English landowner and politician (d. 1331) June 23 – Jakushitsu Genkō, Japanese Rinzai master and poet (d. 1367) August 4 – Leopold I (the Glorious), German nobleman (d. 1326) October 15 – Anne of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1313) December 24 – Khwaju Kermani, Persian poet and mystic (d. 1349) Agnes Haakonsdatter, Norwegian noblewoman and princess (d. 1319) Andrea Pisano (or Pontedera), Italian sculptor and architect (d. 1348) Barlaam of Seminara, Italian cleric, scholar and theologian (d. 1348) Beatrice of Silesia, queen of Germany (House of Piast) (d. 1322) Buton Rinchen Drub, Tibetan Buddhist religious leader (d. 1364) Daichi Sokei, Japanese Buddhist monk, disciple and poet (d. 1366) Giovanni Visconti, Italian cardinal, archbishop and co-ruler (d. 1354) Guido Gonzaga, Italian nobleman and knight (condottiero) (d. 1369) Hugues Quiéret, French nobleman, admiral and advisor (d. 1340) Jacob van Artevelde, Flemish merchant and statesman (d. 1345) Jacopo Dondi dell'Orologio, Italian doctor and polymath (d. 1359) Johannes de Muris, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1344) John Maltravers, English nobleman, knight and governor (d. 1364) John Parricida, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (d. 1312) Jyotirishwar Thakur, Indian playwright, poet and writer (d. 1350) Ke Jiusi, Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher (d. 1343) Kitabatake Tomoyuki, Japanese nobleman and poet (d. 1332) Kujō Fusazane, Japanese nobleman, official and regent (d. 1327) Peter of Castile, Spanish nobleman and prince (infante) (d. 1319) Pierre Bercheure, French translator and encyclopaedist (d. 1362) Rabbenu Yerucham, French rabbi and scholar (posek) (d. 1350) Richard de Willoughby, English landowner and politician (d. 1362) Rudolf Hesso, German nobleman (House of Zähringen) (d. 1335) Sesson Yūbai, Japanese Buddhist monk, priest and poet (d. 1347) Theodore I (Palaiologos), Byzantine nobleman and writer (d. 1338) Willem van Duvenvoorde, Dutch nobleman and knight (d. 1353) Deaths January 28 – Dervorguilla of Galloway, Scottish noblewoman (b. 1210) February 3 – Henry XIII, German nobleman, co-ruler and knight (b. 1235) March 24 – John dal Bastone, Italian monk, priest and preacher (b. 1200) March 26 – John Kirkby, English bishop, vice-chancellor and statesman April 26 – Gaston VII (Froissard), French nobleman and knight (b. 1225) May 10 – Rudolf II, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (b. 1270) June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, Italian muse of Dante Alighieri (b. 1266) June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (b. 1285) June 23 – Henryk IV (the Righteous), High Duke of Poland (b. 1258) July 10 – Ladislaus IV (the Cuman), king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1262) September 26 – Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen of Scotland (b. 1283) November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious), Mamluk ruler of Egypt (b. 1222) November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, queen consort of England (b. 1241) December 18 Herman I, German nobleman (House of Henneberg) (b. 1224) Magnus III (or I) (Birgersson), king of Sweden (b. 1240) December 21 – Gerhard I, German nobleman, knight and regent (b. 1232) Adelaide of Auxerre, French noblewoman and ruler (suo jure) (b. 1251) Alice de Lusignan, French noblewoman (House of Lusignan) (b. 1236) Cecilia Cesarini (or Caecilia), Italian noblewoman and nun (b. 1203) Eison, Japanese Buddhist scholar-monk, disciple and priest (b. 1201) Elizabeth the Cuman, queen of Hungary (House of Arpad) (b. 1244) Fakhr al-Din Mustawfi, Persian finance minister, advisor and vizier References  Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 1-86064-061-3.  Bartl, Július; Čičaj, Viliam; Kohútova, Mária; Letz, Róbert; Segeš, Vladimír; Škvarna, Dušan (2002). Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Slovenské Pedegogické Nakladatel'stvo. p. 34. ISBN 0-86516-444-4.  Mundill, Robin R. (2002). England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262-1290. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52026-6.  David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 49. ISBN 978-1-84176-862-5.  Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 343. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0.  David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 52. ISBN 978-1-84176-862-5.  Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 343. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0.  Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 344. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0.  Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History, p. 80. Primus Books. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.  Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 151. ISBN 0-304-35730-8.  Kington, J. Climate and Weather, HarperCollins Publishers, 2010.
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