Scarce Myrtle Gonzalez Signed Photo Mexican American Actress Died Young 27 Years

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US, Item: 176290343424 SCARCE MYRTLE GONZALEZ SIGNED PHOTO MEXICAN AMERICAN ACTRESS DIED YOUNG 27 YEARS. AN EXTREMELY RARE APPROXIMATELY 7 7/8 X 9 7/8 INCH PHOTO OF LEGENDARY EARLY HISPANIC AMERICAN ACTRESS MYRTLE GONZALEZ WHO DIED AT THE AGE OF 27 FROM THE SPANISH FLU She is regarded as Hollywood"s first Latin and Hispanic movie star actress














Myrtle Gonzalez (September 28, 1891 – October 22, 1918) was an American actress. She starred in at least 78 silent era motion pictures from 1913 to 1917, of which 66 were one and two-reel shorts. She is regarded as a movie star.[1] Gonzalez was best known for her role as Enid Maitland in Vitagraph's six-reel feature length drama The Chalice of Courage (1915) opposite William Duncan. A magazine writer once called her "The Virgin White Lily of the Screen".[citation needed] Early life Myrtle Gonzalez was born in Los Angeles, California on September 28, 1891, the daughter of Manuel George Gonzalez (1868–1919) and Lillian L. Cook (1874–1932). Her siblings were Stella M. Gonzalez (1892–1965) and Manuel G. Gonzalez Jr. (1898–?). Her father's family was a Hispanic Californio family of Mexico,[1] which had long settled this territory before the US took it over. Her mother, the daughter of immigrants from Ireland, was a former opera and popular singer. Her father was a retail grocer. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Myrtle Gonzalez" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) From early childhood, Myrtle displayed remarkable dramatic talent, and she had a good soprano voice.[2] She appeared in many local concerts and benefits and sang in church choirs. She later played juvenile parts on the stage with Fanny Davenport and Florence Stone. Gonzalez married James Parks Jones circa 1910. They had one son together, James Parks Jones Jr. (c. 1911–1970), before they divorced.[3] Movie career Film advertisement in The Moving Picture World, 1916 Because she grew up in Los Angeles, the shift of movie production to her hometown was a big advantage for her. Gonzalez worked for such studios as Vitagraph and Universal. She appeared in five movies opposite William Desmond Taylor at Vitagraph: the comedy/drama Her Husband's Friend (1913), the drama Tainted Money (1914), the comedy Millions for Defence (1914), the drama The Kiss (1914), and the drama Captain Alvarez (1914). In many of her roles, Gonzalez typified a vigorous out-of-doors type of heroine. During the last six years of her career, many of the movies she starred in were stories of the snow country and of the forests. Personal life and death On December 1, 1917, she and actor/director Allen Watt (1885–1944) were married in Los Angeles.[4] She gave up her screen work and retired. They had met when Watt was working as an assistant director at Universal. By the time of their marriage, the US had entered World War I and Watt was an officer in the US Army. He was stationed at Camp Lewis, near Tacoma, Washington. As Gonzalez's health was too frail for the climate, Capt. Watt was placed on the retirement list, so he could return her to Southern California. He went back to work at Universal and began directing.[citation needed] Gonzalez, at age 27, died during the worldwide Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. At the time of her death, she was at her parents' home in Los Angeles, at 908 West Thirtieth Street.[5][3] On November 23, 2022, Google featured her in a Google Doodle in the United States.[6] November 23 is the anniversary of the release of the short film The Level (1914), in which she starred.[6][7] Selected filmography Chalice of Courage (1915) A Natural Man (1915) The Girl of Lost Lake (1916) It Happened in Honolulu (1916) The Secret of the Swamp (1916) The Greater Law (1917) Mutiny (1917) God's Crucible (1917) Southern Justice (1917) The Show Down (1917) Bibliography Doyle, Billy H. (1995). The Ultimate Directory of Silent Screen Performers. pp. 30–31. Metuchen, New Jersey, Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-2958-4. Today’s Doodle celebrates Mexican American actress, Myrtle Gonzalez and was illustrated by Bay Area-based guest artist, Ana Ramírez González. Myrtle Gonzalez starred in an astounding 80 silent films in just five years between 1913 and 1917. On this day in 1914, one of Myrtle Gonzalez’s most well-known films, The Level, was released.  Gonzalez was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 28, 1891. She had a lovely soprano voice, often singing in church and at local charity events as a young girl.  As movie production shifted from New York to Los Angeles, which offered more diverse scenic landscapes for filmmakers, Gonzalez seized the opportunity to get involved in film. She participated in a few local plays before joining a silent motion picture studio called Vitagraph Company of America, where she made her film debut in The Yellow Streak.  After a few years, she moved to Universal Studios and performed in feature films like The Secret of the Swamp and The Girl of Lost Lake. Many of the bold, outdoorsy heroines she played lived in the wilderness, forcing the city girl to adapt to filming in new, treacherous climates. As shown in today’s Doodle, Gonzalez once acted in three feet of snow!  Gonzalez was proud of her Hispanic heritage, and throughout her career, she played strong women who persevered through adversity with strength and dignity.   While much of her work was lost over the years, the Library of Congress preserved a few of her films. She is remembered as one of the first Latina actresses to break into Hollywood. oogle is paying special tribute to the groundbreaking work of Mexican American actress Myrtle Gonzalez this Wednesday, November 23, with an eye-catching update to its familiar logo. Inspired by Gonzalez, who is considered to be Hollywood's first Latin and Hispanic movie star, the new illustrated Google logo is the work of Bay Area-based guest artist, Ana Ramírez González, and references the star's status as an outdoors heroine. Who Was Myrtle Gonzalez? Myrtle Gonzalez Silent Film Actress  Myrtle Gonzalez (September 28, 1891 – October 22, 1918) was an American actress. She starred in at least 78 silent era motion pictures from 1913 to 1917, of which 66 were one and two-reel shorts. She is regarded as Hollywood's first Latin and Hispanic movie star actress. Gonzalez features on the Google Doodle. VITAGRAPH STUDIOS NEWSWEEK NEWSLETTER SIGN-UP > Born in Los Angeles, California on September 28, 1891, Gonzalez's Mexican father worked as a retail grocer while her mother was a former opera singer with family roots that could be traced back to Ireland. Gonzalez appeared destined for stardom from an early age, having taken after her mother with a good soprano voice that saw her sing in a variety of local concerts, benefits and church choirs. However, her focus soon shifted to the world of film after the bulk of America's movie production moved from New York to Los Angeles, in part due to the region's more diverse scenic landscapes, giving birth to what became known as Hollywood. A Los Angeles native, Gonzalez was perfectly placed to take full advantage. After impressing in a few local plays, she joined the silent motion picture studio called Vitagraph Company of America, where she went on to make her film debut in The Yellow Streak. NEWSWEEK SUBSCRIPTION OFFERS > In the years that followed, Gonzalez carved out a niche playing bold, outdoorsy heroines who were often shown living in the wilderness, serving as a counterpoint to the city girls depicted struggling in the unfamiliar surroundings. Though her roles often adhered to a specific type, Gonzalez won praise for playing strong women who overcame adversity through strength and determination and never shied away from celebrating her Hispanic roots. What Films Did Myrtle Gonzalez Star In? Gonzalez starred in 80 films during her storied career, starting with The Yellow Streak. During her time at Vitagraph, she was best known for her work opposite William Desmond Taylor. Gonzalez and Taylor appeared in five movies together over the course of 1913 and 1914. They included the comedies Her Husband's Friend and Millions for Defence along with the dramas Tainted Money, The Kiss and Captain Alvarez. November 23 is significant for being the release date of one of Gonzalez's best known films, The Level. After several years at Vitagraph, Gonzalez moved on to Universal Studios, starring in features like The Secret of the Swamp and The Girl of Lost Lake which both further cemented her outdoorsy heroine status. Gonzalez was twice married. Her first marriage to James Park Jones produced one son, James Parks Jones Jr., before they divorced. She later met and married actor/director Allen Watt. The couple wed in Los Angeles in December 1917, with Gonzalez retiring from her silent film work soon after. However, their marriage was tragically cut short when Gonzalez, aged just 27, died as a result of the worldwide Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. Despite her brief time on the screen, Gonzalez still amassed a staggering number of film credits in the space of just four years and is remembered as Hollywood's first Latin and Hispanic film star. Though many of her movies have been lost over the years, the Library of Congress preserved several of her films to serve as testament to her impact on the industry. Mostly forgotten today because of her untimely death in the 1918 influenza epidemic, Los Angeles native Myrtle Gonzalez began singing and reciting as a child before becoming one of cinema’s first Latina stars. Proud of her Hispanic heritage, Gonzalez never stooped to portraying negative stereotypes of Latinos, but instead focused on dramatic and action roles, gaining the moniker “nature girl.” Born September 28, 1891, in Los Angeles, Gonzalez grew up in the Catholic Church, a refuge for her Los Angeles-born father, Manuel, and her Irish American mother, Lillian. The Gonzalez family supposedly lived for several decades in Los Angeles, with her great-grandfather one of the first people married in the Old Plaza Church. Lillian practiced her music talents, performing in church and organizing programs of recitations, songs, dance and drama for a variety of venues, often as benefits for organizations like the Plaza Church. She directed choirs for adults and children, taught music lessons and managed her students as well. In 1901, she even produced and directed a children’s opera version of “Cinderella” featuring more than 100 voices. Myrtlw Gonzales 10-21-16 MPNGonzalez  and her baby sister, Stella, demonstrated musical skill as well, taking lessons from their mother and extolling their gifts singing in religious services. Proud of their daughters’ talents, the Gonzalezes allowed them to first perform in benefits for Catholic services and organizations. Gonzalez appears to have first performed as early as 1898 in a pageant and recital, and in 1901 performed for a Sacred Heart Church benefit, with her comic dance so pleasing audiences that she won the prize for most popular little girl. Over the next ten years, Gonzalez gained fame and attention singing, dancing, and reciting for fairs, benefits, recitals and productions. The family proudly celebrated their Spanish heritage for Mexico’s Independence Day on September 16 every year, particularly for the Cura Hidalgo Club’s galas. Led by their father, Manuel, the Cura Hidalgo Club was an exclusive club for prominent Latino Angelenos. Lillian Gonzalez choreographed and directed each year’s celebrations, which included their daughters in 1905 in the Plaza Church. Myrtle Gonzalez sang and dance and also played the violin obligato during the performance. Skillful in music and performance, Gonzalez would go on to play the piano and other instruments, as well as giving recitations and speeches. In the 1906 Liberal Alliance performance staged by her mother at the Chutes Park, Gonzalez and a trio of young children received a special ovation representing California, with the girl carrying the state flag. Organized by her father, Manuel, along with Paul de Longpre and others in 1905, the organization’s aim was “to promote a spirit of unity and good fellowship among the citizens” of Los Angeles, “and especially to foster a desire for public gatherings of a cosmopolitan nature,” per the April 1, 1906 Los Angeles Times. Learning well from their parents, the children grew up with a desire to help others. On April 26, Stella Gonzalez organized a benefit vaudeville performance at the Hotchkiss Theater for victims of the San Francisco earthquake, with Fay Bainter, Muriel Fuller, Myrtle Gonzalez, and other performers taking part. On September, 15, 1907, Gonzalez, 16, was featured in the Los Angeles Times, with whisperings that she was engaged. Featuring denials by the outspoken young woman, the paper declared her “…the most beautiful girl in the Spanish American colony, whom the artists rave over…quite famous among local beauty lovers for her rare type of features.” The paper went on to describe her gray eyes, long, curling lashes, and dewy white skin, noting that a well-known local artist likened her photographic appearance “to one of Raphael’s Madonnas.” Mrs. Gonzalez avowed that photographers might be allowed to shoot portraits, but no painters would be allowed to draw her portrait. By 1909, Gonzalez performed around the Southland in operatic and stage performances for a variety of groups including a massive performance of the Passion Play, finding time to become engaged to J. Parks Jones, formerly of Cincinnati, who courted her for a few years. On August 25, the couple married in the Plaza Church and saw their son born a year later. The young couple separated in 1912, perhaps not temperamentally suited to each other, particularly if Gonzalez desired to continue performing. Newspapers note a contentious hearing for divorce, with Jones claiming she demonstrated temperamental behavior while Gonzalez noted that Jones had emotionally and physically abused her while also seeing other women. The judge dismissed the hearing, suggesting they go home and work out the situation, but awarding her $40 a month from Jones. Myrtle GonzalesAt this time, Gonzalez decided to enter filmmaking, looking for a way to support herself and her child. Confidently approaching Vitagraph Studios’ western Manager Director Rollin S. Sturgeon, she impressed him enough to hire her, stepping quickly into the role of their juvenile western leading lady. In 1914, Gonzalez appeared with actor William Desmond Taylor in “Captain Alvarez,” one of their five pictures and one of her many location films. She performed with William Duncan and Jack Mower in several of her Vitagraph films. Promoting herself in the trades, Gonzalez accentuated her position in Los Angeles society and embroidered her resume, claiming she worked with David Belasco’s troupe in Los Angeles and performed with stock companies, and that motion picture exhibitors suggested she enter the field. She also claimed that she “took advantage of securing an athletic training, learning to swim, ride and play gymnasium games,” an ironic statement, since she told newspapers in 1907 that she possessed no athletic talent or gene and never participated in any physical activity besides dancing. She was truthful however in her love of cars and fashion, driving sporty models and acting as mechanic while also designing parts of her wardrobe. Gonzalez received fine notices, with Moving Picture World stating she gave an exceptional performance in the title role of “Anne of the Mines” while others praised her physical skills in a variety of action films. A Japanese film magazine called her “the Virgin White Lily of the Screen” and “typifying the vigorous out-of-door type of heroine.” She gained some of her strongest praise for one of her last Vitagraph films, “Chalice of Courage” in 1915. Though acting in moving pictures, Gonzalez continued singing and dancing in recitals and for church benefits, as well as assisting others to stage concerts as well. In 1916 she produced and directed a vaudeville show benefiting a church. In the fall of 1915, she moved to Universal, where she made a variety of movies, many with director Lynn Reynolds for his nature films like “The Girl of Lost Lake,” “The Secret of the Swamp,” and “The End of the Rainbow.” The city girl learned to perform her own stunts on diverse and sometimes dangerous locations like Mt. Wilson, Big Bear, Santa Cruz, Catalina, Truckee, and even the redwood forests. While in Truckee, they performed with three feet of snow on the ground. Perhaps weather conditions or hazardous stunts led to health issues. In 1916, she was reported ill before a trade noted that she arose from her sick bed after the production was shut down for two weeks to complete the last scenes. In June 1917, trades reported Gonzalez had resigned from Universal, perhaps for further recuperation. She did organize a Red Cross fundraiser and performed for charities later that year. During her time working at Universal, Gonzalez met assistant director Allen Watt. Over time their relationship blossomed, and on December 8, 1917, the couple married in an impromptu ceremony at her parents’ south Los Angeles home. Perhaps Gonzalez was experiencing health issues as few newspapers report activities for her in 1918. On October 23 of that year, she died after suffering for four days from influenza. Just 27, she left her husband, seven-year-old son, parents, and siblings. The Catholic newspaper The Tidings called her Myrtle Gonzalez Jones at her death, failing to acknowledge Watt. Some newspapers claimed Gonzalez’s death came from other causes, be it falling from a horse in 1915 to suffering a heart attack. After a few months of grieving, Watt rejoined Universal as an assistant director to Douglas Gerrard. Dying so young, Gonzalez was quickly forgotten by the entertainment industry and press. Over time, many if not most of her films disintegrated, leaving little to display of her legacy. While little exists of Gonzalez’s career, she was the first major Latina film performer to succeed in movies, and for that she should be celebrated. Hispanic and Latino Americans (Spanish: Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos; Portuguese: Estadunidenses hispânicos e latinos) are Americans of Spanish and/or Latin American ancestry.[3][5][6][7] More broadly, these demographics include all Americans who identify as Hispanic or Latino regardless of ancestry.[8][9][10][11][12] As of 2020, the Census Bureau estimated that there were almost 65.3 million Hispanics and Latinos living in the United States and its territories[1] (which include Puerto Rico). "Origin" can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage or country of birth of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States of America. People who identify as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race.[13][14][15][16] As one of the only two specifically designated categories of ethnicity in the United States (the other being "Not Hispanic or Latino"), Hispanics and Latinos form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic and Latino Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Spanish, Salvadoran, Dominican, Brazilian, Guatemalan, Colombian, or Venezuelan origin. The predominant origin of regional Hispanic and Latino populations varies widely in different locations across the country.[14][17][18][19][20] In 2012, Hispanic Americans were the second fastest-growing ethnic group by percentage growth in the United States after Asian Americans.[21] Hispanics of Indigenous descent and Native Americans are the oldest ethnic groups to inhabit much of what is today the United States.[22][23][24][25] Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, as well as Florida. Its holdings included present-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Florida, all of which constituted part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, based in Mexico City. Later, this vast territory became part of Mexico after its independence from Spain in 1821 and until the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848. Hispanic immigrants to the New York/New Jersey metropolitan area derive from a broad spectrum of Hispanic countries.[26] Terminology The Spanish Harlem Orchestra in Manhattan. New York City is home to nearly 3 million Latino Americans, the largest Hispanic population of any city outside Latin America and Spain. Hispanic and Latino immigrants to New York originate from a broad spectrum of Latin American countries. Further information: Hispanic and Latino (ethnic categories) The terms "Hispanic" and "Latino" refer to an ethnicity. The U.S. Census Bureau defines being Hispanic as being a member of an ethnicity, rather than being a member of a particular race and thus, people who are members of this group may also be members of any race.[14][27][28] In a 2015 national survey of self-identified Hispanics, 56% said that being Hispanic is part of both their racial and ethnic background, while smaller numbers considered it part of their ethnic background only (19%) or racial background only (11%).[27] Hispanics may be of any linguistic background; in a 2015 survey, 71% of American Hispanics agreed that it "is not necessary for a person to speak Spanish to be considered Hispanic/Latino".[29] Hispanic and Latino people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, and heritage. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the term "Latino" includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish-language origin.[30][31] In the United States, many Hispanics are of Iberian (primarily Spanish) and Indigenous American ancestry (mestizo). Others may have European, Middle Eastern (including Jewish), or Asian ancestry as well as Indigenous American ancestry. Many Hispanics from the Caribbean, as well as many Hispanics from other regions of the Hispanic world where African slavery was widespread, may also be of sub-Saharan African descent.[30][32] The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is ambiguous to some people.[33] The U.S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of the Americas. After the Mexican–American War concluded in 1848, term Hispanic or Spanish American was primarily used to describe the Hispanos of New Mexico within the American Southwest. The 1970 United States census controversially broadened the definition to "a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race". This is now the common formal and colloquial definition of the term within the United States, outside of New Mexico.[34][35] This definition is consistent with the 21st century usage by the U.S. Census Bureau and OMB, as the two agencies use both terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably. The Pew Research Center believes that the term "Hispanic" is strictly limited to Spain, Puerto Rico, and all countries where Spanish is the only official language whereas "Latino" includes all countries in Latin America (even Brazil) regardless of the fact that Portuguese is its only official language, but it does not include Spain.[36] The term Latino is a condensed form of "latinoamericano", the Spanish term for a Latin American, or someone who comes from Latin America. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions. This definition, as a "male Latin American inhabitant of the United States",[37] was the original and is therefore the oldest definition which is used in the United States, it was first used in 1946.[37] Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino. A Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America.[38][39][40][41][42][43] But also by this definition, Italian Americans are not considered "Latino", as they are for the most part descended from immigrants from Europe rather than Latin America, unless they happen to have had recent history in a Latin American country. Storefronts at Lexington Avenue and 116th Street at East Harlem, Manhattan, also known as Spanish Harlem or "El Barrio" Preference of use between the terms among Hispanics in the United States often depends on where users of the respective terms reside. Those in the Eastern United States tend to prefer the term Hispanic, whereas those in the West tend to prefer Latino.[13] The U.S. ethnic designation Latino is abstracted from the longer form latinoamericano.[44] The element latino- is actually an indeclinable, compositional form in -o (i.e. an elemento compositivo) that is employed to coin compounded formations (similar as franco- in francocanadiense 'French-Canadian′, or ibero- in iberorrománico,[45] etc.). The term Latinx (and similar neologism Xicanx) have gained some usage.[46][47] The adoption of the X would be "[r]eflecting new consciousness inspired by more recent work by LGBTQI and feminist movements, some Spanish-speaking activists are increasingly using a yet more inclusive "x" to replace the "a" and "o", in a complete break with the gender binary.[48] Among the advocates of the term LatinX, one of the most frequently cited complaints of gender bias in the Spanish language is that a group of mixed or unknown gender would be referred to as Latinos, whereas Latinas refers to a group of women only (but this is changed immediately to Latinos, if even a single man joins this female group).[49] A 2020 Pew Research Center survey found that about 3% of Hispanics use the term (mostly women), and only around 23% have even heard of the term. Of those, 65% said it should not be used to describe their ethnic group.[50] The Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Little Spain on 14th Street in Manhattan, an important nucleus for many decades for the Spanish community in New York City[51] Some have pointed out that the term "Hispanic" refers to a pan-ethnic identity, one that spans a range of races, national origins, and linguistic backgrounds. "Terms like Hispanic and Latino do not fully capture how we see ourselves", says Geraldo Cadava, an associate professor of history and Hispanic studies at Northwestern University.[52] According to 2017 American Community Survey data, a small minority of immigrants from Brazil (2%), Portugal (2%), and the Philippines (1%) self-identified as Hispanic.[12] History [icon] This section needs expansion with: more about the 19th and 20th centuries. You can help by adding to it. (January 2010) Main article: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States See also: Hispanic Heritage Sites 16th and 17th centuries Castillo de San Marcos in Saint Augustine, Florida. Built in 1672 by the Spanish, it is the oldest masonry fort in the United States. Spanish explorers were pioneers in the territory of the present-day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental United States was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida. In the next three decades, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the Atlantic Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three fellows (including an African named Estevanico), from a Spanish expedition that foundered, journeyed from Florida to the Gulf of California. In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present United States. San Miguel Chapel, built in 1610 in Santa Fe, New Mexico, is the oldest church structure in the United States. Also in 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican natives across today's Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US territory include, among others: Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano, and Juan de Oñate, and non-Spanish explorers working for the Spanish Crown, such as Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. In 1565, the Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida. Spanish missionaries and colonists founded settlements including in the present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, El Paso, San Antonio, Tucson, Albuquerque, San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.[53] Dolores Huerta in 2009. Huerta has received numerous awards for her community service and advocacy for workers', and women's rights. She was the first Hispanic inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame, in 1993.[54][55] 18th and 19th centuries As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War (a conflict in which Spain aided and fought alongside the rebels), Spain held claim to roughly half the territory of today's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican–American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring its three currently most populous states—California, Texas, and Florida.[citation needed]. Many Hispanic natives lived in the areas that the United States acquired, and a new wave of Mexican, Central American, Caribbean, and South American immigrants had moved to the United States for new opportunities. This was the beginning of a demographic that would rise dramatically over the years.[56] 20th and 21st centuries During the 20th and 21st centuries, Hispanic immigration to the United States increased markedly following changes to the immigration law in 1965.[57] During the World Wars, Hispanic Americans and immigrants had helped stabilize the American economy from falling due to the industrial boom in the Midwest in states such as Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. While a percentage of Americans had fled their jobs for the war, Hispanics had taken their jobs in the Industrial world. This can explain why there is such a high concentration of Hispanic Americans in Metro Areas such as the Chicago-Elgin-Naperville, Detroit-Warren-Dearborn, and Cleveland-Elyria areas.[56] Hispanic contributions in the historical past and present of the United States are addressed in more detail below (See Notables and their contributions). To recognize the current and historic contributions of Hispanic Americans, on September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week, with Congress's authorization. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended the observance to a month, designated National Hispanic Heritage Month.[58][59] Hispanic Americans became the largest minority group in 2004.[60] Demographics Hispanic Americans population pyramid in 2020 Proportion of Americans who are Hispanic in each U.S. state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census Main article: Demographics of Hispanic and Latino Americans See also: Demographics of the United States and List of U.S. states by Hispanic and Latino population As of 2020, Hispanics accounted for 19-20% of the US population, or 62-65 million people.[61] The U.S. Census Bureau later estimated that Hispanics were under-counted by 5.0% or 3.3 million persons in the U.S. census, which explains the 3 million range in the number above. In contrast, Whites were over-counted by about 3 million.[62] The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007, period was 28.7%—about four times the rate of the nation's total population growth (at 7.2%).[63] The growth rate from July 1, 2005, to July 1, 2006, alone was 3.4%[64]—about three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population growth (at 1.0%).[63] Based on the 2010 census, Hispanics are now the largest minority group in 191 out of 366 metropolitan areas in the United States.[65] The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 132.8 million people, or 30.2% of the nation's total projected population on that date.[66] Geographic distribution See also: List of U.S. cities with large Hispanic populations Proportion of Hispanic Americans in each county of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census US Metropolitan Statistical Areas with over 1 million Hispanics (2014)[67] Rank Metropolitan area Hispanic population Percent Hispanic 1 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA 5,979,000 45.1% 2 New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ-PA 4,780,000 23.9% 3 Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL 2,554,000 43.3% 4 Houston-The Woodlands-Sugar Land, TX 2,335,000 36.4% 5 Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, CA 2,197,000 49.4% 6 Chicago-Naperville-Elgin, IL-IN-WI 2,070,000 21.8% 7 Dallas-Fort Worth-Arlington, TX 1,943,000 28.4% 8 Phoenix-Mesa-Scottsdale, AZ 1,347,000 30.1% 9 San Antonio-New Braunfels, TX 1,259,000 55.7% 10 San Diego-Carlsbad, CA 1,084,000 33.3% 11 San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA 1,008,000 21.9% States and territories with the highest proportion of Hispanics (2021)[68] Rank State/territory Hispanic population Percent Hispanic 1 Puerto Rico 3,249,043 99% 2 New Mexico 1,059,236 50% 3 Texas 11,857,387 40% 4 California 15,754,608 40% 5 Arizona 2,351,124 32% 6 Nevada 940,759 29% 7 Florida 5,830,915 26% 8 Colorado 1,293,214 22% 9 New Jersey 1,991,635 21% 10 New York 3,864,337 19% 11 Illinois 2,277,330 18% 12 United States Virgin Islands 18,514 17.4% Of the nation's total Hispanic population, 49% (21.5 million) live in California or Texas.[69] In 2022, New York City and Washington, D.C. began receiving significant numbers of Latino migrants from the state of Texas, mostly originating from Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Honduras.[70] Over half of the Hispanic population is concentrated in the Southwest region, mostly composed of Mexican Americans. California and Texas have some of the largest populations of Mexicans and Central American Hispanics in the United States. The Northeast region is dominated by Dominican Americans and Puerto Ricans, having the highest concentrations of both in the country. In the Mid Atlantic region, centered on the DC Metro Area, Salvadoran Americans are the largest of Hispanic groups. Florida is dominated by Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans. In both the Great Lakes states and the South Atlantic states, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans dominate. Mexicans dominate in the rest of the country, including the West, South Central and Great Plains states. National origin Intermediate level international-style Latin dancing at the 2006 MIT ballroom dance competition. A judge stands in the foreground. Population by national origin (2018) (self-identified ethnicity, not by birthplace)[71] Hispanic ancestry Population % Mexican 36,986,661 61.89% Puerto Rican 9,033,381 15.12% Cuban 2,363,532 3.95% Salvadoran 2,306,774 3.86% Dominican 2,082,857 3.49% Colombian 2,023,341 3.38% Guatemalan 1,524,743 2.55% Spanish 1,500,000 2.5% Honduran 963,930 1.61% Ecuadorian 717,995 1.20% Peruvian 684,345 1.15% Venezuelan 484,445 0.81% Nicaraguan 434,000 0.73% Argentinian 286,346 0.48% Panamanian 206,219 0.35% Chilean 172,062 0.29% Costa Rican 154,784 0.26% Bolivian 116,646 0.20% Uruguayan 60,013 0.10% Paraguayan 25,022 0.04% All other 2,000,000 3.3% Total 62,000,000 100.0 As of 2018, approximately 61.9% of the nation's Hispanic population were of Mexican origin (see table). Another 15.1% were of Puerto Rican origin, and with about 3.9% each of Cuban and Salvadoran and about 3.5% Dominican origins. The remainder were of other Central American or of South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. Two thirds of all Hispanic Americans were born in the United States.[72] There are few immigrants directly from Spain, since Spaniards have historically emigrated to Hispanic America rather than to English-speaking countries. Because of this, most Hispanics who identify themselves as Spaniard or Spanish also identify with Hispanic American national origin. In the 2017 Census estimate approximately 1.3 million Americans reported some form of "Spanish" as their ancestry, whether directly from Spain or not.[73] In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to settlers from New Spain (Mexico), and sometimes Spain itself, in the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispanos", "Spanish" or "Hispanic". Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Native Americans, creating a mestizo population.[74] Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry. Californios, Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are Americans of Spanish and/or Mexican descent, with subgroups that sometimes call themselves Chicanos. Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct southwest Hispanic cultures with their own cuisines, dialects and musical traditions. Nuyoricans are Americans of Puerto Rican descent from the New York City area. There are close to two million Nuyoricans in the United States. Prominent Nuyoricans include Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, US Supreme Court Judge Sonia Sotomayor, and singer Jennifer Lopez. Race See also: Race and ethnicity in Latin America and Race and ethnicity in the United States Eva Longoria's mtDNA belongs to the Haplogroup A2, possibly making her a direct descendant of a Maya woman from the current territory of Mexico.[75] Hispanics come from multi-racial and multi-ethnic countries with diversity of origins; therefore, a Hispanic can be from any race or mix of races. The most common ancestries are: Indigenous American (Native Americans), European and African. Most Hispanics have mixed ancestry of different combinations and ratios,[76] although non-mixed Hispanics of each race also exist in varied amounts on each country. Actress Alexis Bledel is a white Hispanic of Argentine and Mexican[77] origin with Scottish, German and Scandinavian heritage. Bledel grew up in a Spanish-speaking household and did not learn English until she began school.[78][79] Hispanic origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau. Depending on the regions within Hispanic America, a significant proportion of Hispanics have high to moderate levels Native Indigenous American ancestry. Similarly to Portuguese, English, German and many other European nations over the centuries, many Hispanics also have colonial era New Christian Sephardic Jewish ancestry.[80] To a lesser extent, Hispanics possess at least partial ancestry of more recent post-colonial ancestry from Ashkenazi Jews, Levantine Arabs (Lebanese, Syrian and Palestinian). Thus, as a whole, Hispanics are of mostly of a mixture of Iberian and Native Indigenous American ancestry, with degrees of admixture levels that vary from person to person, from varying global genetic sources. On the 2020 United States census, 20.3% of Hispanics identified selected "white" as their race. These white Hispanics make up 12,579,626 people or 3.8% of the population. The largest numbers of those who consider themselves white Hispanic Americans come from within the Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadorans, Spanish and Argentine communities.[81][82][83] Over 42% of Hispanic Americans identify as "some other race".[84] These "some other race" Hispanics are usually assumed to be mestizos or mulattos.[85] Mestizo is not a racial category in the U.S. Census, but signifies someone who is conscious of both their Native American and European ancestry. Of all Americans who checked the box "Some Other Race", 97 percent were Hispanic.[86] Almost one-third of the multi-race respondents were Hispanics.[85] Most of the multi-racial population in the Mexican, Salvadoran, and Guatemalan communities are of mixed European and Native American ancestry (mestizo), while most of the multiracial population in the Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Cuban communities are of mixed European, Native Indigenous American, Canary Islander and Sub-Saharan African. Actress Daniella Alonso is of Puerto Rican and Peruvian (Quechua and Japanese) descent.[87] The largest numbers of black Hispanics are from the Spanish Caribbean islands, including the Cuban, Dominican, Panamanian and Puerto Rican communities. As Latinos, especially Mexicans and Central Americans, who are mainly of a mixed-race background, have moved further from the southwest, their presence might disrupt in the long term the traditional American view of race as a binary between Black and white.[88] The few hundred thousand Asian Hispanics are of various backgrounds, among which include Filipino mestizos with Spanish background, Asians of Hispanic background (examples including Chinese Cubans, Korean Argentines, Japanese Peruvians) and those of recent mixed Asian and Hispanic background (as many Hispanics are of pure or partial European ancestry, many Americans of mixed Asian and Hispanic background are Eurasians). Note that Filipinos are generally not counted as Hispanic, despite the fact that the Spanish colonized the Philippines and many Filipinos have Spanish names, this is because majority of Filipinos never speak Spanish presently. Hispanic Americans are often racially of Native American ancestry mixed with Iberians[citation needed]. For example, of Hispanics deriving from northern Mexico, consider themselves white or acknowledge Native American ancestry with some European mixtures, while of those deriving from southern Mexican ancestry, the majority are Native American or of Native American and European ancestry. In Guatemala, Mayans are majority, while in El Salvador, people of Native American descent are the majority. In the Dominican Republic, the population is largely of inter-mixed ancestries. Zoe Saldaña at the 82nd Academy Awards (2010) In Puerto Rico, people have some Native Indigenous American ancestry as well as European and Canary Islander ancestry. There's also a population of predominantly African descent as well as populations of Native American descent as well as those with intermixed ancestries. Cubans are mostly of Iberian and Canary Islander ancestry, with some heritage from Native Indigenous Caribbean. There are also populations of black Sub-Saharan ancestry and multi-racial people.[89][90][91] The race and culture of each Hispanic country and their United States diaspora differs by history and geography. Welch and Sigelman found, as of the year 2000, lower interaction between Latinos of different nationalities (such as between Cubans and Mexicans) than between Latinos and non-Latinos.[92] This is a reminder that while they are often treated as such, Latinos in the United States are not a monolith, and often view their own ethnic or national identity as vastly different than that of other Latinos.[92] Persons of Mexican heritage represent the bulk of the U.S. Hispanic population. Most Mexican Americans already with a multi-generational presence in the USA predating the 1970s are of predominantly mixed Native Indigenous American groups and to a lesser extent Iberians, while most recent Mexican Americans that have migrated or descend from migrants to the United States post-1980s are of predominantly Native American descent with varying levels of European admixture, with the rest are of predominantly European (most especially Iberian) descent with varying levels of Native American admixture. Official sources report that the racial makeup of Hispanic subgroups from the countries Uruguay,[93] Cuba,[93] and Chile[93] have the highest proportion, for their respective countries, of Hispanics in the US self-identifying as white – though in raw numbers the highest number of white Hispanics in the United States are Mexican Americans. As a result of their racial diversity, Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language (Spanish) and cultural heritage, rather than a race. The phenomenon of biracial people who are predominantly of European descent identifying as white is not limited to Hispanics or Spanish speakers but is also common among English speakers as well: researchers found that most white Americans with less than 28 percent African-American ancestry say they are white; above that threshold, people tended to describe themselves as African-American.[94] Racial Demographics of Hispanic Americans Between 1970 and 2020[95][96][97][4][98] Race/Ethnic Group 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Total Population 9,072,602 14,608,673 22,354,059 35,305,818 50,477,594 62,080,044 White alone 8,466,126 (93.3%) 8,115,256 (55.6%) 11,557,774 (51.7%) 16,907,852 (47.9%) 26,735,713 (53.0%) 12,579,626 (20.3%) Black alone 454,934 (5.0%) 390,852 (2.7%) 769,767 (3.4%) 710,353 (2.0%) 1,243,471 (2.5%) 1,163,862 (1.9%) Native American or Alaska Native alone 26,859 (0.3%) 94,745 (0.6%) 165,461 (0.7%) 407,073 (1.2%) 685,150 (1.4%) 1,475,436 (2.4%) Asian or Pacific Islander alone - 166,010 (1.1%) 305,303 (1.4%) 165,155 (0.5%) 267,565 (0.5%) 335,278 (0.5%) Some other race alone 124,683 (1.4%)[a] 5,841,810 (40.0%) 9,555,754 (42.7%) 14,891,303 (42.2%) 18,503,103 (36.7%) 26,225,882 (42.2%) Two or more races –[b] –[b] –[b] 2,224,082 (6.3%) 3,042,592 (6.0%) 20,299,960 (32.7%) Age As of 2014, one third, or 17.9 million, of the Hispanic population was younger than 18 and a quarter, 14.6 million, were Millennials. This makes them more than half of the Hispanic population within the United States.[99] Education See also: Hispanic-serving institution Hispanic K–12 education Lauro Cavazos, US Secretary of Education from August 1988 to December 1990 Westlake Theatre building, side wall mural of Jaime Escalante and Edward James Olmos With the increasing Hispanic population in the United States, Hispanics have had a considerable impact on the K–12 system. In 2011–12, Hispanics comprised 24% of all enrollments in the United States, including 52% and 51% of enrollment in California and Texas, respectively.[100] Further research shows the Hispanic population will continue to grow in the United States, implicating that more Hispanics will populate U.S. schools. The state of Hispanic education shows some promise. First, Hispanic students attending pre-K or kindergarten were more likely to attend full-day programs.[100] Second, Hispanics in elementary education were the second largest group represented in gifted and talented programs.[100] Third, Hispanics' average NAEP math and reading scores have consistently increased over the last 10 years.[100] Finally, Hispanics were more likely than other groups, including white people, to go to college.[100] However, their academic achievement in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education lag behind other groups.[100] For instance, their average math and reading NAEP scores were lower than every other group, except African Americans, and have the highest dropout rate of any group, 13% despite decreasing from 24%.[100] To explain these disparities, some scholars have suggested there is a Hispanic "Education Crisis" due to failed school and social policies.[101] To this end, scholars have further offered several potential reasons including language barriers, poverty, and immigrant/nativity status resulting in Hispanics not performing well academically.[102][103] English language learners Spanish speakers in the United States by counties in 2000 Currently, Hispanic students make up 80% of English language learners in the United States.[104] In 2008–2009, 5.3 million students were classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) in pre-K to 12th grade.[105] This is a result of many students entering the education system at different ages, although the majority of ELLs are not foreign born.[105] In order to provide English instruction for Hispanic students there have been a multitude of English Language programs. However, the great majority of these programs are English Immersion, which arguably undermines the students' culture and knowledge of their primary language.[103] As such, there continues to be great debate within schools as to which program can address these language disparities. Immigration status Undocumented immigrants have not always had access to compulsory education in the United States. However, since the landmark Supreme Court case Plyler v. Doe in 1982, immigrants have received access to K-12 education. This significantly impacted all immigrant groups, including Hispanics. However, their academic achievement is dependent upon several factors including, but not limited to time of arrival and schooling in country of origin.[106] Moreover, Hispanics' immigration/nativity status plays a major role regarding their academic achievement. For instance, first- and second- generation Hispanics outperform their later generational counterparts.[107] Additionally, their aspirations appear to decrease as well.[108] This has major implications on their postsecondary futures. Hispanic higher education In 2007, University of Texas at El Paso was ranked the number one graduate engineering school for Hispanics.[109] Those with a bachelor's degree or higher ranges from 50% of Venezuelans compared to 18% for Ecuadorians 25 years and older. Amongst the largest Hispanic groups, those with a bachelor's or higher was 25% for Cubans, 16% of Puerto Ricans, 15% of Dominicans, and 11% for Mexicans. Over 21% of all second-generation Dominican Americans have college degrees, slightly below the national average (28%) but significantly higher than U.S.-born Mexican Americans (13%) and U.S.-born Puerto Rican Americans (12%).[110] Hispanics make up the second or third largest ethnic group in Ivy League universities, considered to be the most prestigious in the United States. Hispanic enrollment at Ivy League universities has gradually increased over the years. Today, Hispanics make up between 8% of students at Yale University to 15% at Columbia University.[111] For example, 18% of students in the Harvard University Class of 2018 are Hispanic.[112] Hispanics have significant enrollment in many other top universities such as University of Texas at El Paso (70% of students), Florida International University (63%), University of Miami (27%), and MIT, UCLA and UC-Berkeley at 15% each. At Stanford University, Hispanics are the third largest ethnic group behind non-Hispanic white people and Asians, at 18% of the student population.[113] Hispanic university enrollments See also: The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education Main article: List of engineering programs in the California State University 2019 -2020 Total Enrollment 4-Year Schools[114] While Hispanics study in colleges and universities throughout the country, some choose to attend federally-designated Hispanic-serving institutions, institutions that are accredited, degree-granting, public or private nonprofit institutions of higher education with 25 percent or more total undergraduate Hispanic full-time equivalent (FTE) student enrollment. There are over 270 institutions of higher education that have been designated as an HSI.[115] Universities with the largest Hispanic undergraduate enrollment (2013)[116] Rank University Hispanic enrollment % of student body 1 Florida International University 24,105 67% 2 University of Texas at El Paso 15,459 81% 3 University of Texas Pan American 15,009 91% 4 University of Texas at San Antonio 11,932 47% 5 California State University at Northridge 11,774 38% 6 California State University at Fullerton 11,472 36% 7 Arizona State University 11,465 19% 8 California State University at Long Beach 10,836 35% 9 California State University at Los Angeles 10,392 58% 10 University of Central Florida 10,255 20% Universities with the largest Hispanic graduate enrollment (2013) Rank University Hispanic enrollment % of student body 1 Nova Southeastern University 4,281 20% 2 Florida International University 3,612 42% 3 University of Southern California 2,358 11% 4 University of Texas Pan American 2,120 78% 5 University of Texas at El Paso 2,083 59% 6 CUNY Graduate Center 1,656 30% 7 University of New Mexico 1,608 26% 8 University of Texas at San Antonio 1,561 35% 9 University of Florida 1,483 9% 10 Arizona State University 1,400 10% Hispanic student enrollment in university and college systems (2012–2013) Rank University system Hispanic enrollment % of student body 1 California Community College System[117] 642,045 41% 2 California State University[118] 149,137 33% 3 Florida College System[119] 118,821 26% 4 University of Texas System[120] 84,086 39% 5 State University System of Florida[121] 79,931 24% 6 City University of New York[122] 77,341 30% 7 State University of New York[123] 43,514 9% 8 University of California 42,604 18% 9 Texas A&M University System[124][125] 27,165 25% 10 Nevada System of Higher Education[126] 21,467 21% - Ivy League[111] 11,562 10% Health Longevity Flyers at Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport wearing face masks on March 6, 2020 as the COVID-19 coronavirus spreads throughout the United States. Disproportionate numbers of cases have been observed among black and Hispanic populations.[127][128][129] As of 2016, life expectancy for Hispanic Americans is 81.8 years, which is higher than the life expectancy for non-Hispanic white Americans (78.6 years).[130] Research on the "Hispanic paradox"—the well-established apparent mortality advantage of Hispanic Americans compared to non-Hispanic white Americans, despite the latter's more advantaged socioeconomic status—has been principally explained by "(1) health-related migration to and from the US; and (2) social and cultural protection mechanisms, such as maintenance of healthy lifestyles and behaviors adopted in the countries of origin, and availability of extensive social networks in the US."[131] The "salmon bias" hypothesis, which suggests that the Hispanic health advantage is attributable to higher rates of return migration among less-healthy migrants, has received some support in the scholarly literature.[132] A 2019 study, examining the comparatively better health of foreign-born American Hispanics, challenged the hypothesis that a stronger orientation toward the family (familism) contributed to this advantage.[133] Some scholars have suggested that the Hispanic mortality advantage is likely to disappear due to the higher rates of obesity and diabetes among Hispanics relative to non-Hispanic white people, although lower rates of smoking (and thus smoking-attributable mortality) among Hispanics may counteract this to some extent.[131] Healthcare As of 2017, about 19% of Hispanic Americans lack health insurance coverage, which is the highest of all ethnic groups except for Indigenous Americans and Alaska Natives.[134] In terms of extending health coverage, Hispanics benefited the most among U.S. ethnic groups from the Affordable Care Act (ACA); among non-elderly Hispanics, the uninsured rate declined from 26.7% in 2013 to 14.2% in 2017.[134] Among the population of non-elderly uninsured Hispanic population in 2017, about 53% were non-citizens, about 39% were U.S.-born citizens, and about 9% were naturalized citizens.[134] (The ACA does not help undocumented immigrants or legal immigrants with less than five years' residence in the United States gain coverage).[134] According to a 2013 study, Mexican women have the highest uninsured rate (54.6%) as compared to other immigrants (26.2%), black (22.5%) and non-Hispanic white (13.9%).[135] According to the study, Mexican women are the largest female immigrant group in the United States and are also the most at risk for developing preventable health conditions.[135] Multiple factors such as limited access to health care, legal status and income increase the risk of developing preventable health conditions because many undocumented immigrants postpone routine visits to the doctor until they become seriously ill. Mental health Family separation Ana Navarro a political strategist and commentator immigrated as a result of the Sandinista revolution. Rally to end family separation in Cleveland, Ohio Some families who are in the process of illegally crossing borders can suffer being caught and separated by border patrol agents. Migrants are also in danger of separation if they do not bring sufficient resources such as water for all members to continue crossing. Once illegal migrants have arrived to the new country, they may fear workplace raids where illegal immigrants are detained and deported. Family separation puts U.S born children, undocumented children and their illegal immigrant parents at risk for depression and family maladaptive syndrome. The effects are often long-term and the impact extends to the community level. Children may experience emotional traumas and long-term changes in behaviors. Additionally, when parents are forcefully removed, children often develop feelings of abandonment and they might blame themselves for what has happened to their family. Some children that are victims to illegal border crossings that result in family separation believe in the possibility of never seeing their parents again. These effects can cause negative parent-child attachment. Reunification may be difficult because of immigration laws and re-entry restrictions which further affect the mental health of children and parents.[136] Parents who leave their home country also experience negative mental health experiences. According to a study published in 2013, 46% of Mexican migrant men who participated in the study reported elevated levels of depressive symptoms.[137] In recent years, the length of stay for migrants has increased, from 3 years to nearly a decade.[137] Migrants who were separated from their families, either married or single, experienced greater depression than married men accompanied by their spouses.[137] Furthermore, the study also revealed that men who are separated from their families are more prone to harsher living conditions such as overcrowded housing and are under a greater deal of pressure to send remittance to support their families. These conditions put additional stress on the migrants and often worsen their depression. Families who migrated together experience better living conditions, receive emotional encouragement and motivation from each other, and share a sense of solidarity. They are also more likely to successfully navigate the employment and health care systems in the new country, and are not pressured to send remittances back home. Discrimination Main article: Hispanophobia Protesters hold various signs and banners at a Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) rally in San Francisco. It is reported that 31% of Hispanics have reported personal experiences with discrimination whilst 82% of Hispanics believe that discrimination plays a crucial role in whether or not they will find success while they are living in the United States.[138] The current legislation on immigration policies also plays a crucial role in creating a hostile and discriminatory environment for immigrants. In order to measure the discrimination which immigrants are being subjected to, researchers must take into account the immigrants' perception that they are being targeted for discrimination and they must also be aware that instances of discrimination can also vary based on: personal experiences, social attitudes and ethnic group barriers. The immigrant experience is associated with lower self-esteem, internalized symptoms and behavioral problems amongst Mexican youth. It is also known that more time which is spent living in the United States is associated with increased feelings of distress, depression and anxiety.[138] Like many other Hispanic groups that migrate to the United States, these groups are often stigmatized. An example of this stigmatization occurred after 9/11, when people who were considered threats to national security were frequently described with terms like migrant and the "Hispanic Other" along with other terms like refugee and asylum seeker.[139] Vulnerabilities The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 significantly changed how the United States dealt with immigration. Under this new law, immigrants who overstayed their visas or were found to be in the United States illegally were subject to be detained and/or deported without legal representation. Immigrants who broke these laws may not be allowed back into the country. Similarly, this law made it more difficult for other immigrants who want to enter the U.S or gain legal status. These laws also expanded the types of offenses that can be considered worthy of deportation for documented immigrants.[140] Policies enacted by future presidents further limit the number of immigrants entering the country and their expedited removal. Many illegal immigrant families cannot enjoy doing everyday activities without exercising caution because they fear encountering immigration officers which limits their involvement in community events. Undocumented families also do not trust government institutions and services. Because of their fear of encountering immigration officers, illegal immigrants often feel ostracized and isolated which can lead to the development of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.[140] The harmful effects of being ostracized from the rest of society are not limited to just that of undocumented immigrants but it affects the entire family even if some of the members are of legal status. Children often reported having been victims of bullying in school by classmates because their parents are undocumented.[141] This can cause them to feel isolated and develop a sense of inferiority which can negatively impact their academic performance. Stress Despite the struggles Hispanic families encounter, they have found ways to keep motivated. Many immigrants use religion as a source of motivation. Mexican immigrants believed that the difficulties they face are a part of God's bigger plan and believe their life will get better in the end. They kept their faith strong and pray every day, hoping that God will keep their families safe.[142] Immigrants participate in church services and bond with other immigrants that share the same experiences.[140] Undocumented Hispanics also find support from friends, family and the community that serve as coping mechanisms. Some Hispanics state that their children are the reason they have the strength to keep on going. They want their children to have a future and give them things they are not able to have themselves.[142] The community is able to provide certain resources that immigrant families need such as tutoring for their children, financial assistance and counseling services.[140] Some identified that maintaining a positive mental attitude helped them cope with the stresses they experience. Many immigrants refuse to live their life in constant fear which leads to depression in order to enjoy life in the United States.[142] Since many immigrants have unstable sources of income, many plan ahead in order to prevent future financial stress. They put money aside and find ways to save money instead of spend it such as learning to fix appliances themselves.[142] Poverty Many Hispanic families migrate to find better economic opportunities in order to send remittances back home. Being undocumented limits the possibilities of jobs that immigrants undertake and many struggle to find a stable job. Many Hispanics report that companies turned them down because they do not have a Social Security number. If they are able to obtain a job, immigrants risk losing it if their employer finds out they are unable to provide proof of residency or citizenship. Many look towards agencies that do not ask for identification, but those jobs are often unreliable. In order to prevent themselves from being detained and deported, many have to work under exploitation. In a study, a participant reported "If someone knows that you don't have the papers ... that person is a danger. Many people will con them ... if they know you don't have the papers, with everything they say 'hey I'm going to call immigration on you.'".[142] These conditions lower the income that Hispanic families bring to their household and some find living each day very difficult. When an undocumented parent is deported or detained, income will be lowered significantly if the other parent also supports the family financially. The parent who is left has to look after the family and might find working difficult to manage along with other responsibilities. Even if families aren't separated, Hispanics are constantly living in fear that they will lose their economic footing. Living in poverty has been linked to depression, low self-esteem, loneliness, crime activities and frequent drug use among youth.[140] Families with low incomes are unable to afford adequate housing and some of them are evicted. The environment in which the children of undocumented immigrants grow up in is often composed of poor air quality, noise, and toxins which prevent healthy development.[140] Furthermore, these neighborhoods are prone to violence and gang activities, forcing the families to live in constant fear which can contribute to the development of PTSD, aggression and depression. Economic outlook Median U.S. household income by Nationality (2015) Ethnicity Income Spanish $60,640 Argentinian $60,000 Colombian $56,800 Cuban $56,000 Puerto Rican $54,500 Venezuelan $51,000 Chilean $51,000 Peruvian $47,600 Bolivian $44,400 Ecuadorian $44,200 Mexican $40,500 Honduran $40,200 Salvadoran $36,800 Guatemalan $36,800 Sources:[143][failed verification] Median income In 2017, the US Census reported the median household incomes of Hispanic Americans to be $50,486. This is the third consecutive annual increase in median household income for Hispanic-origin households.[97] Poverty Beginning of Calle Ocho (eighth Street) in Little Havana of Miami, Florida, United States. According to the US Census, the poverty rate Hispanics was 18.3 percent in 2017, down from 19.4 percent in 2016. Hispanics accounted for 10.8 million individuals in poverty.[97] In comparison, the average poverty rates in 2017 for non-Hispanic white Americans was 8.7 percent with 17 million individuals in poverty, Asian Americans was 10.0 percent with 2 million individuals in poverty, and African Americans was 21.2 percent with 9 million individuals in poverty.[97] Among the largest Hispanic groups during 2015 was: Honduran Americans & Dominican Americans (27%), Guatemalan Americans (26%), Puerto Ricans (24%), Mexican Americans (23%), Salvadoran Americans (20%), Cuban Americans and Venezuelan Americans (17%), Ecuadorian Americans (15%), Nicaraguan Americans (14%), Colombian Americans (13%), Argentinian Americans (11%) and Peruvian Americans (10%).[144] Poverty affects many underrepresented students as racial/ethnic minorities tend to stay isolated within pockets of low-income communities. This results in several inequalities, such as "school offerings, teacher quality, curriculum, counseling and all manner of things that both keep students engaged in school and prepare them to graduate".[145] In the case of Hispanics, the poverty rate for Hispanic children in 2004 was 28.6 percent.[104] Moreover, with this lack of resources, schools reproduce these inequalities for generations to come. In order to assuage poverty, many Hispanic families can turn to social and community services as resources. Cultural matters Main articles: American culture and Hispanic culture See also: National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations Museum of Latin American Art The geographic, political, social, economic and racial diversity of Hispanic Americans makes all Hispanics very different depending on their family heritage and/or national origin. Many times, there are many cultural similarities between Hispanics from neighboring countries than from more distant countries, ie Spanish Caribbean, Southern Cone, Central America etc. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics from these diverse backgrounds. Language See also: Spanish language in the United States and Languages of the United States Spanish Spanish colonial architecture in Los Angeles Chicago Picasso as seen at Christkindlmarket As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught amongst Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied with the person's family, heritage, and overall culture, but valued for increased opportunities in business and one's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95% of Hispanics adults said "it's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish".[146][147] Given the United States' proximity to other Spanish-speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Amongst second-generation Hispanics, 80% speak fluent Spanish, and amongst third-generation Hispanics, 40% speak fluent Spanish.[148] Spanish is also the most popular language taught in the United States.[149][150] Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States, first brought to North America during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565.[151][152][153][154] Today, 90% of all Hispanics speak English, and at least 78% speak fluent Spanish.[155] Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home for a total of 41.1 million.[98] With 40% of Hispanic Americans being immigrants,[156] and with many of the 60% who are US-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English-speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.[155] American Spanish dialects See also: Isleño Spanish and New Mexican Spanish Spanish speakers in the United States Year Number of speakers Percent of population 1980 11.0 million 5% 1990 17.3 million 7% 2000 28.1 million 10% 2010 37.0 million 13% 2012 38.3 million 13% 2020* 40.0 million 14% *-Projected; sources:[146][157][158][159] The Spanish dialects spoken in the United States differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person's family heritage. However, generally, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish or Chicano Spanish. A variety of Spanish native to the Southwest spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado is known as Traditional New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of Traditional New Mexican Spanish is its use of distinct vocabulary and grammatical forms that make New Mexican Spanish unique amongst Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in the East Coast is generally Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Isleño Spanish, descended from Canarian Spanish, is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although is generally Mexican Spanish.[98][160] Heritage Spanish speakers tend to speak Spanish with near-native level phonology, but a more limited command of morphosyntax.[161] Hispanics who speak Spanish as a second language often speak with English accents. Spanglish and English dialects Main articles: Chicano English, Spanglish, Miami § Dialect, and New York Latino English See also: List of English words of Spanish origin Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Amongst younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, a term for any mix of Spanish and English, is common in speaking. As they are fluent in both languages, speakers will often switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic-majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles and parts of New York City.[162] Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed amongst second and third generations of Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect, is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English.[163] An English dialect spoken by Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups is called New York Latino English; Jennifer Lopez and Cardi B are examples of people who speak with the New York Latino dialect. When speaking in English, American Hispanics may often insert Spanish tag and filler items such as tú sabes, este, and órale, into sentences as a marker of ethnic identity and solidarity. The same often occurs with grammatical words like pero.[164] Religion José Horacio Gómez, Archbishop of Los Angeles According to a Pew Center study which was conducted in 2019, the majority of Hispanic Americans are Christians (72%),[165] Among American Hispanics, as of 2018–19, 47% are Catholic, 24% are Protestant, 1% are Mormon, less than 1% are Orthodox Christian, 3% are members of non-Christian faiths, and 23% are unaffiliated.[165] The proportion of Hispanics who are Catholic has dropped from 2009 (when it was 57%), while the proportion of unaffiliated Hispanics has increased since 2009 (when it was 15%).[165] Among Hispanic Protestant community, most are evangelical, but some belong to mainline denominations.[166] Compared to Catholic, unaffiliated, and mainline Protestant Hispanics; Evangelical Protestant Hispanics are substantially more likely to attend services weekly, pray daily, and adhere to biblical liberalism.[166] As of 2014, about 67% of Hispanic Protestants and about 52% of Hispanic Catholics were renewalist, meaning that they described themselves as Pentecosal or charismatic Christians (in the Catholic tradition, called Catholic charismatic renewal).[167] Catholic affiliation is much higher among first-generation Hispanic immigrants than it is among second and third-generation Hispanic immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of conversion to Protestantism or the unaffiliated camp.[168] According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Hispanics leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year, and this figure is much higher in Texas and Florida.[169] Hispanic Catholics are developing youth and social programs to retain members.[170] Hispanics make up a substantial proportion (almost 40%) of Catholics in the United States,[171] although the number of American Hispanic priests is low relative to Hispanic membership in the church.[172] In 2019, José Horacio Gómez, Archbishop of Los Angeles and a naturalized American citizen born in Mexico, was elected as president of the US Conference of Catholic Bishops.[171] Media The United States is home to thousands of Spanish-language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting US Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively. Increased use of Spanish-language media leads to increased levels of group consciousness, according to survey data. The differences in attitudes are due to the diverging goals of Spanish-language and English-language media. The effect of using Spanish-language media serves to promote a sense of group consciousness among Hispanics by reinforcing roots in the Hispanic world and the commonalities among Hispanics of varying national origin.[173][174] The first Hispanic-American owned major film studio in the United States is based in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2017, Ozzie and Will Areu purchased Tyler Perry's former studio to establish Areu Bros. Studios.[175][176] Radio Spanish language radio is the largest non-English broadcasting media.[177] While other foreign language broadcasting declined steadily, Spanish broadcasting grew steadily from the 1920s to the 1970s. The 1930s were boom years.[178] The early success depended on the concentrated geographical audience in Texas and the Southwest.[179] American stations were close to Mexico which enabled a steady circular flow of entertainers, executives and technicians, and stimulated the creative initiatives of Hispanic radio executives, brokers, and advertisers. Ownership was increasingly concentrated in the 1960s and 1970s. The industry sponsored the now-defunct trade publication Sponsor from the late 1940s to 1968.[180] Spanish-language radio has influenced American and Hispanic discourse on key current affairs issues such as citizenship and immigration.[181] Networks Notable Hispanic-oriented media outlets include: CNN en Español, a Spanish-language news network based in Atlanta, Georgia; ESPN Deportes and Fox Deportes, two Spanish-language sports television networks. Telemundo, the second-largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally; TeleXitos an American Spanish language digital multicast television network owned by NBCUniversal Telemundo Enterprises. Universo, a cable network that produces content for U.S.-born Hispanic audiences; Univisión, the largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally. It is the country's fourth-largest network overall;[182] UniMás, an American Spanish language free-to-air television network owned by Univision Communications. Fusion TV, an English television channel targeting Hispanic audiences with news and satire programming; Galavisión, a Spanish-language television channel targeting Hispanic audiences with general entertainment programming; Estrella TV, an American Spanish-language broadcast television network owned by the Estrella Media. V-me, a Spanish-language television network; Primo TV, an English-language cable channel aimed at Hispanic youth.; Azteca América, a Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally; Fuse, a former music channel that merged with the Hispanic-oriented NuvoTV in 2015. FM, a music-centric channel that replaced NuvoTV following the latter's merger with Fuse in 2015. 3ABN Latino, a Spanish-language Christian television network based in West Frankfort, Illinois; TBN Enlace USA, a Spanish-language Christian television network based in Tustin, California; Print La Opinión, a Spanish-language daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California and distributed throughout the six counties of Southern California. It is the largest Spanish-language newspaper in the United States El Nuevo Herald and Diario Las Américas, Spanish-language daily newspapers serving the greater Miami, Florida, market El Tiempo Latino a Spanish-language free-circulation weekly newspaper published in Washington, D.C. Latina, a magazine for bilingual, bicultural Hispanic women People en Español, a Spanish-language magazine counterpart of People Vida Latina, a Spanish-language entertainment magazine distributed throughout the Southern United States Sports and music Because of different cultures throughout the Hispanic world, there are various music forms throughout Hispanic countries, with different sounds and origins. Many Hispanics prefer musical genres from their home countries than music from the United States. Mostly, the recent arrivals listened to Spanish music, while Hispanics who been in the United States for generations tend to listen more to English music. Reggaeton and Hip hop are genres that are most popular to Hispanic youth in the United States. Soccer is a common sport for Hispanics from outside of the Caribbean region, particularly immigrants. Baseball is a common among Caribbean Hispanics. Other popular sports include Boxing, Football, and Basketball. Cuisine Mexican food has become part of the mainstream American market, just as Italian food did so decades before. Hispanic food, particularly Mexican food, has influenced American cuisine and eating habits. Mexican cuisine has become so mainstream in American culture that many no longer see it as an ethnic food. Across the United States, tortillas and salsa are arguably becoming as common as hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips popular in Caribbean cuisines have continued to increase sales.[183] Tropical fruit, such as mango, guava and passion fruit (maracuyá), have become more popular and are now common flavors in desserts, candies and food dishes in the United States.[citation needed] Due to the large Mexican-American population in the Southwestern United States, and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the United States. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to Miami and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba and empanadas are common mid-day snacks in the city. Cuban culture has changed Miami's coffee drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had at one of the city's numerous coffee shops.[184] The Cuban sandwich, developed in Miami, is now a staple and icon of the city's cuisine and culture.[185] Familial situations Family life and values Mexican American girls at a Quinceañera celebration in Santa Fe, New Mexico Hispanic culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the United States. The role of grandparents is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.[186] Hispanics tend to be very group-oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well-being of the family above the individual. The extended family plays an important part of many Hispanic families, and frequent social, family gatherings are common. Traditional rites of passages, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments: such as baptisms, birthdays, First Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations and weddings are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families.[187][188] Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key towards continued upward mobility in the United States among Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university.[189][190] Hispanic youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding a paid job that meets their aspirations.[191] Intermarriage Mariah Carey's father was of African-American and Afro-Venezuelan descent, while her mother is of Irish descent. Hispanic Americans, like many immigrant groups before them, are out-marrying at high rates. Out-marriages comprised 17.4% of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008.[192] The rate was higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7% of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out-marriage rates of 9.4% of white people, 17.1% of black people, and 27.7% of Asians). The rate was larger for native-born Hispanics, with 36.2% of native-born Hispanics (both men and women) out-marrying compared to 14.2% of foreign-born Hispanics.[193] The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity.[192] In 2008, 81% of Hispanics who married out married non-Hispanic white people, 9% married non-Hispanic black people, 5% non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners.[192] Rosa Salazar is of Peruvian and French descent.[194] Of approximately 275,500 new interracial or interethnic marriages in 2010, 43.3% were white-Hispanic (compared to white-Asian at 14.4%, white-black at 11.9%, and other combinations at 30.4%; "other combinations" consists of pairings between different minority groups and multi-racial people).[193] Unlike those for marriage to black people and Asians, intermarriage rates of Hispanics to white people do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of white/Hispanic couples are lower than those of white/white couples but higher than those of Hispanic/Hispanic couples. 23% of Hispanic men who married white women have a college degree compared to only 10% of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33% of Hispanic women who married a white husband are college-educated compared to 13% of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man.[193] Attitudes among non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable, with 81% of white people, 76% of Asians and 73% of black people "being fine" with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic and an additional 13% of white people, 19% of Asians and 16% of black people "being bothered but accepting of the marriage". Only 2% of white people, 4% of Asians, and 5% of black people would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic.[192] Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable, with 81% "being fine" with marriages to white people and 73% "being fine" with marriages to black people. A further 13% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a white and 22% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a black. Only 5% of Hispanics objected outright marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic black and 2% to a non-Hispanic white.[192] Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic black people varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with black people, of all major Hispanic national groups, who also has the highest overall intermarriage rate among Hispanics.[189][195][196][197][198][199][200][201][202][203][excessive citations] Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic white people, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into white American culture.[204][205] Cultural adjustment Camila Cabello was born in Cuba. She moved between Havana and Mexico City before locating to Miami at age 5. As Hispanic migrants become the norm in the United States, the effects of this migration on the identity of these migrants and their kin becomes most evident in the younger generations. Crossing the borders changes the identities of both the youth and their families. Often "one must pay special attention to the role expressive culture plays as both entertainment and as a site in which identity is played out, empowered, and reformed" because it is "sometimes in opposition to dominant norms and practices and sometimes in conjunction with them".[206] The exchange of their culture of origin with American culture creates a dichotomy within the values that the youth find important, therefore changing what it means to be Hispanic in the global sphere. Transnationalism Along with feeling that they are neither from the country of their ethnic background nor the United States, a new identity within the United States is formed called latinidad. This is especially seen in cosmopolitan social settings like New York City, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Underway is "the intermeshing of different Latino subpopulations has laid the foundations for the emergence and ongoing evolution of a strong sense of latinidad" which establishes a "sense of cultural affinity and identity deeply rooted in what many Hispanics perceive to be a shared historical, spiritual, aesthetic and linguistic heritage, and a growing sense of cultural affinity and solidarity in the social context of the United States."[206] This unites Hispanics as one, creating cultural kin with other Hispanic ethnicities. Gender roles In Hispanic culture, the role of a man is to be the sole breadwinner for his family, he must work hard to provide.[207] Hispanic men demand respect and obedience and carry the responsibility of being the head of the family, in which he is tasked with keeping his family composed and honorable in the eyes of society.[208] Hispanic men working in construction A man feels pressure from his community to prove his manhood and manliness, leading the male to exemplify behaviors of machismo.[209] There are two sides to machismo, the man who has a strong work ethic and lives up to his responsibilities, or the man who heavily drinks and therefore displays acts of unpleasant behavior towards his family.[207] To display machismo is to assert male dominance in all spheres, especially in a man's relationship with his female partner; the concept is enforced through convincing males into comporting themselves with a macho (literally, "male" or "masculine") archetype in order to establish respect, dominance, and manliness in their social ambits.[210] Hispanic woman washing, doing household chores The traditional roles of women in a Hispanic community are of housewife and mother, a woman's role is to cook, clean, and care for her children and husband; putting herself and her needs last.[211] The typical structure of a Hispanic family forces women to defer authority to her husband, allowing him to make the important decisions, that both the woman and children must abide by.[212] A woman must not question her husband's authority nor go against him, a woman is expected to remain submissive, take orders, and tolerate any behavior displayed by her husband.[211] In traditional Hispanic households, women and young girls are homebodies or muchachas de la casa ("girls of the house"), showing that they abide "by the cultural norms ... [of] respectability, chastity, and family honor [as] valued by the [Hispanic] community".[213] A woman occupied with all the tasks required to support her household and family is often unable to work or become educated, being outside the home is deemed unacceptable and wrong.[214] Migration to the United States can change the identity of Hispanic youth in various ways, including how they carry their gendered identities.[215] However, when Hispanic women come to the United States, they tend to adapt to the perceived social norms of this new country and their social location changes as they become more independent and able to live without the financial support of their families or partners.[215] The unassimilated community views these adapting women as being de la calle ("of [or from] the street"), transgressive, and sexually promiscuous.[215] A women's motive for pursuing an education or career is to prove she can care and make someone of herself, breaking the traditional gender role that a Hispanic woman can only serve as a mother or housewife, thus changing a woman's role in society.[216] Some Hispanic families in the United States "deal with young women's failure to adhere to these culturally prescribed norms of proper gendered behavior in a variety of ways, including sending them to live in ... [the sending country] with family members, regardless of whether or not ... [the young women] are sexually active".[217] Now there has been a rise in the Hispanic community where both men and women are known to work and split the household chores among themselves; women are encouraged to gain an education, degree, and pursue a career; men and women are both beginning to be seen as equal members in the Hispanic community.[218] Sexuality In Hispanic culture it is expected for men to partake only in heterosexual relationships, some men often seek multiple female partners to further prove their sexuality and masculinity.[219] A man is expected to lead a heterosexual life while upholding traditional values.[219] The Hispanic community rejects men who identify themselves as homosexuals, homophobia is deeply embedded in these communities, forcing gay men to hide and remain ashamed of their sexuality.[220] Due to the homophobia present in the Hispanic community, gay men feel a high sense of shame and guilt which leads to risky sexual behavior, leaving them at a risk for HIV and other STDs.[221] The socially constructed behaviors of machismo reinforce only traditional gender roles and sexual preferences; while simultaneously upholding homophobia and prejudice for those that identify as lesbians and gay men.[222] With the Catholic Church remaining a large influence on the Hispanic culture, the subject of promiscuity and sexuality is often considered taboo.[223] There is a lack of conversation and communication regarding sexuality and sexual behavior in these communities, leaving Hispanic adolescents at a higher risk of STDs and unwanted pregnancies.[223] It is believed that women should not participate in or know about sexual behaviors which produce a sense of naivety regarding the topic and results in discomfort and embarrassment.[224] It is taught in many Hispanic cultures that the best way to remain pure of sin and not become pregnant is to remain celibate and heterosexual until marriage.[225] All are to be straight and women are to be virgins.[225] A woman must carry herself like Mary in order to receive respect and keep the family's honor.[226] Marianismo dictates the traditional role of a Hispanic women, a woman is expected to remain sexually pure, submissive, and is seen as an object of pleasure for men.[227] The Catholic religion preaches for heterosexual marriages and the preservation of family; and condemns and stigmatizes homosexual or bisexual relationships.[228] Latino sexual minorities who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender often do not reveal their sexual preferences out of fear of being excluded or rejected by their community.[222] Natalie Morales interviewing Jill Biden at the White House in 2016. Relations towards other minority groups Sunny Hostin American lawyer, columnist, journalist, and television host. Hostin was born to a Puerto Rican mother and an African-American father, and her maternal grandfather was of Sephardic Jewish descent As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations,[229] especially the African-American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively black areas.[230][231][232][233][234][235][236][237][238][239][240] There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence.[241][242][243][244][245] A 2007 UCLA study reported that 51% of black people felt that Hispanics were taking jobs and political power from them and 44% of Hispanics said they feared African-Americans, identifying them (African-Americans) with high crime rates. That said, large majorities of Hispanics credited American black people and the civil rights movement with making life easier for them in the United States.[246][247] A Pew Research Center poll from 2006 showed that black people overwhelmingly felt that Hispanic immigrants were hard working (78%) and had strong family values (81%); 34% believed that immigrants took jobs from Americans, 22% of black people believed that they had directly lost a job to an immigrant, and 34% of black people wanted immigration to be curtailed. The report also surveyed three cities: Chicago (with its well-established Hispanic community); Washington, D.C. (with a less-established but quickly growing Hispanic community); and Raleigh-Durham (with a very new but rapidly growing Hispanic community). The results showed that a significant proportion of black people in those cities wanted immigration to be curtailed: Chicago (46%), Raleigh-Durham (57%), and Washington, DC (48%).[248] Per a 2008 University of California, Berkeley Law School research brief, a recurring theme to black/Hispanic tensions is the growth in "contingent, flexible, or contractor labor", which is increasingly replacing long term steady employment for jobs on the lower-rung of the pay scale (which had been disproportionately filled by black people). The transition to this employment arrangement corresponds directly with the growth in the Hispanic immigrant population. The perception is that this new labor arrangement has driven down wages, removed benefits, and rendered temporary, jobs that once were stable (but also benefiting consumers who receive lower-cost services) while passing the costs of labor (healthcare and indirectly education) onto the community at large.[249] A 2008 Gallup poll indicated that 60% of Hispanics and 67% of black people believe that good relations exist between US black people and Hispanics[250] while only 29% of black people, 36% of Hispanics and 43% of white people, say black–Hispanic relations are bad.[250] In 2009, in Los Angeles County, Hispanics committed 30% of the hate crimes against black victims and black people committed 70% of the hate crimes against Hispanics.[251] Politics Main article: Hispanic and Latino American politics See also: List of Hispanic Americans in the United States Congress Current Hispanics in the United States government Name Political party State First elected Ancestry Supreme Court Sonia Sotomayor — 2009[c] Puerto Rican State Governors Chris Sununu Republican New Hampshire 2016 Salvadoran, Cuban Michelle Lujan Grisham Democratic New Mexico 2018 Hispanos of New Mexico US Senate Bob Menéndez Democratic New Jersey 2006 Cuban Marco Rubio Republican Florida 2010 Cuban Ted Cruz Republican Texas 2012 Cuban Catherine Cortez Masto Democratic Nevada 2016 Mexican Ben Ray Luján Democratic New Mexico 2020 Hispanos of New Mexico Alex Padilla Democratic California 2021[d] Mexican US House of Representatives José E. Serrano Democratic New York 1990 Puerto Rican Lucille Roybal-Allard Democratic California 1992 Mexican Nydia Velázquez Democratic New York 1992 Puerto Rican Grace Napolitano Democratic California 1998 Mexican Mario Díaz-Balart Republican Florida 2002 Cuban Raúl Grijalva Democratic Arizona 2002 Mexican Linda Sánchez Democratic California 2002 Mexican Henry Roberto Cuellar Democratic Texas 2004 Mexican Albio Sires Democratic New Jersey 2006 Cuban John Garamendi Democratic California 2009 Spanish Bill Flores Republican Texas 2010 Spanish Jaime Herrera Republican Washington 2010 Mexican Tony Cárdenas Democratic California 2012 Mexican Joaquin Castro Democratic Texas 2012 Mexican Raúl Ruiz Democratic California 2012 Mexican Juan Vargas Democratic California 2012 Mexican Filemon Vela Jr. Democratic Texas 2012 Mexican Pete Aguilar Democratic California 2014 Mexican Ruben Gallego Democratic Arizona 2014 Colombian Alex Mooney Republican West Virginia 2014 Cuban Norma Torres Democratic California 2014 Guatemalan Nanette Barragán Democratic California 2016 Mexican Salud Carbajal Democratic California 2016 Mexican Lou Correa Democratic California 2016 Mexican Adriano Espaillat Democratic New York 2016 Dominican Vicente González Democratic Texas 2016 Mexican Brian Mast Republican Florida 2016 Mexican Darren Soto Democratic Florida 2016 Puerto Rican Jimmy Gomez Democratic California 2017 Mexican Antonio Delgado Democratic New York 2018 Puerto Rican Veronica Escobar Democratic Texas 2018 Mexican Chuy García Democratic Illinois 2018 Mexican Sylvia Garcia Democratic Texas 2018 Mexican Anthony Gonzalez Republican Ohio 2018 Cuban Mike Levin Democratic California 2018 Mexican Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez Democratic New York 2018 Puerto Rican Mike Garcia Republican California 2020 Mexican Carlos A. Giménez Republican Florida 2020 Cuban Tony Gonzales Republican Texas 2020 Mexican Teresa Leger Democratic New Mexico 2020 Mexican Nicole Malliotakis Republican New York 2020 Cuban Maria Elvira Salazar Republican Florida 2020 Cuban Ritchie Torres Democratic New York 2020 Puerto Rican Mayra Flores Republican Texas 2022 Mexican The Congressional Hispanic Caucus, circa 1984 Congressional Hispanic Conference members met with Attorney General Al Gonzales Political affiliations Main page: Category:Hispanic and Latino American members of the Cabinet of the United States Delegate Joseph Marion Hernández of the Florida Territory, elected in 1822, the first Hispanic American to serve in the United States Congress in any capacity Hispanics differ on their political views depending on their location and background. The majority (57%)[252] either identify as or support the Democrats, and 23% identify as Republicans.[252] This 34-point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier. While traditionally a key Democratic Party constituency at-large,[253] beginning in the early 2010s, Hispanics have begun to split[254] between the Democrats and the Republican Party.[255][256][257] In a 2022 study, it was found that 64% of Latinos surveyed had positive attitudes towards President Obama’s executive actions on immigration, which was notably four percentage points lower than that of non-Hispanic Black respondents. It was also noted that support for undocumented immigrants was lowest among Latinos living in developing 'bedroom communities' or newly built suburbs designed for commuters. This was also the case for Latinos of affluent income levels, however they were still most likely to display a positive attitude towards undocumented immigrants, especially when compared to their non-Hispanic white counterparts.[258] Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Chilean Americans, and Venezuelan Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor progressive political ideologies and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous—as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics—the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the ethnic group overall. Some political organizations associated with Hispanic Americans are League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation and the National Institute for Latino Policy. Political impact Main article: List of minority governors and lieutenant governors in the United States The United States has a population of over 60 million of Hispanic Americans, of whom 27 million are citizens eligible to vote (13% of total eligible voters); therefore, Hispanics have a very important effect on presidential elections since the vote difference between two main parties is usually around 4%.[259][260][261][262] Elections of 1996-2006 U.S. President George W. Bush announces Alberto Gonzales nomination as the Attorney General Barbara Vucanovich the first Hispanic elected to the United States House of Representatives, in which she served representing Nevada In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics backed President Bill Clinton. In 2000, the Democratic total fell to 62%, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 54-44 against Bush.[263] Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Hispanics voted 63–32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Hispanics by a smaller 56–43 margin. Texas Hispanics were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50–49 over their favorite son candidate and Florida Hispanics (who are mostly Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54–45 margin. In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal Hispanic immigration and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Hispanics went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69–30 margin, with Florida Hispanics for the first time split evenly. The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Hispanic politics. Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Hispanic voters; majority-Hispanic counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez and majority European-American counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla. Elections 2008-2012 Ileana Ros-Lehtinen became the first Cuban American Hispanic in congress and first Hispanic chair of the Congressional Hispanic Conference. In the 2008 Presidential election's Democratic primary, Hispanics participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group's support.[264] Pundits discussed whether Hispanics would not vote for Barack Obama because he was African-American.[265] Hispanics voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic. In other groups, younger voters went overwhelmingly for Obama.[266] Among Hispanics, 28% said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13% for (non-Hispanic) white people.[266] Obama defeated Clinton. Susana Martinez, first elected Hispanic woman Governor in the United States In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain, Hispanics supported Obama with 59% to McCain's 29% in the June 30 Gallup tracking poll.[267] This was higher than expected, since McCain had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort (John McCain was born in Panama to parents who were serving in the US Navy, but raised in the United States).[268] However, McCain had retreated from reform during the Republican primary, damaging his standing among Hispanics.[269][better source needed] Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads in Spanish highlighting McCain's reversal.[270][better source needed] In the general election, 67% of Hispanics voted for Obama.[271][272] with a relatively strong turnout in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada and Virginia, helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans who have a strong presence in Florida. The relative growth of non-Cuban vs Cuban Hispanics also contributed to his carrying Florida's Hispanics with 57% of the vote.[271][273] While employment and the economy were top concerns for Hispanics, almost 90% of Hispanic voters rated immigration as "somewhat important" or "very important" in a poll taken after the election.[274] Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 had damaged the party's appeal to Hispanics, especially in swing states such as Florida, Nevada and New Mexico.[274] In a Gallup poll of Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18% of participants identified as Republicans.[267] Hispanics voted even more heavily for Democrats in the 2012 election with the Democratic incumbent Barack Obama receiving 71% and the Republican challenger Mitt Romney receiving about 27% of the vote.[275][276] Some Hispanic leaders were offended by remarks Romney made during a fundraiser, when he suggested that cultural differences[277] and "the hand of providence"[278][279] help explain why Israelis are more economically successful than Palestinians, and why similar economic disparities exist between other neighbors, such as the United States and Mexico, or Chile and Ecuador.[280] A senior aide to Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas called the remarks racist,[279][281] as did American political scientist Angelo Falcón, president of the National Institute of Latino Policy.[282] Mitt Romney father was born to American parents in a Mormon colony in Chihuahua, Mexico. Elections 2014–present Main articles: 2020 United States presidential election in Florida and 2020 United States presidential election in Texas Debbie Mucarsel-Powell, first South American immigrant member of Congress, elected in 2018 U.S. Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (NY), also known as AOC, representing parts of The Bronx and Queens, became at age 29, the youngest woman ever to be elected to Congress in November 2018. "More convincing data" from the 2016 United States presidential election[283] from the polling firm Latino Decisions indicates that Clinton received a higher share of the Hispanic vote, and Trump a lower share, than the Edison exit polls showed. Using wider, more geographically and linguistically representative sampling, Latino Decisions concluded that Clinton won 79% of Hispanic voters (also an improvement over Obama's share in 2008 and 2012), while Trump won only 18% (lower than previous Republicans such as Romney and McCain).[284] Additionally, the 2016 Cooperative Congressional Election Study found that Clinton's share of the Hispanic vote was one percentage point higher than Obama's in 2012, while Trump's was seven percentage points lower than Romney's.[285] On June 26, 2018, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, a millennial, won the Democratic primary in New York's 14th congressional district covering parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City, defeating the incumbent, Democratic Caucus Chair Joe Crowley, in what has been described as the biggest upset victory in the 2018 midterm election season and at the age of 29 years, became the youngest woman ever elected to Congress.[286][287] She is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America and has been endorsed by various politically progressive organizations and individuals.[288] According to a Pew Research Center report, the 2020 election will be the first one when Hispanics are the largest racial or ethnic minority group in the electorate. A record 32 million Hispanics were projected to be eligible to vote in the presidential election, many of them first-time voters. On September 15, 2020, President Donald J. Trump announces his intent to nominate and appoint Eduardo Verastegui, to be a member of the President's Advisory Commission on Hispanic Prosperity if re-elected after days of the Democratic convention.[289] Hispanic communities across the United States were long held as a single voting bloc, but economic, geographic and cultural differences show stark divides in how Hispanic Americans have cast their ballots in 2020. Hispanics helped deliver Florida to Donald Trump in part because of Cuban Americans and Venezuelan Americans (along with smaller populations such as Nicaraguan Americans and Chilean Americans); President Trump's reelection campaign ran pushing a strong anti-socialism message as a strategy in Florida, to their success. However the perceived anti-immigrant rhetoric resonated with Arizona and the COVID-19 pandemic (Arizona being one of the states hardest hit by the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States). The takeaway may be this may be the last election cycle that the "Hispanic vote" as a whole is more talked about instead of particular communities within it, such as Cubans, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans and so on. In Texas like in Arizona the Hispanic community mainly being Mexican American; one in three Texan voters is now Hispanic. Biden did win the Hispanic vote in those states. But in Texas, 41 percent to 47 percent of Hispanic voters backed Trump in several heavily Hispanic border counties in the Rio Grande Valley region, a Democratic stronghold. In Florida, Trump won 45 percent of the Hispanic vote, an 11-point improvement from his 2016 performance reported NBC News.[290] Recognizing Hispanics as a population that can not only make a differences in swing states like Arizona and Texas or Florida, but also really across the country, even in places like Wisconsin, Michigan and Pennsylvania, the number of Hispanic eligible voters may be the reason for the thin margins. In 1984, 37 percent of Hispanics voted for Ronald Reagan and 40 percent voted for George W. Bush in 2004. Year Candidate of the plurality Political party % of Hispanic vote Result 1980 Jimmy Carter Democratic 56% Lost 1984 Walter Mondale Democratic 61% Lost 1988 Michael Dukakis Democratic 69% Lost 1992 Bill Clinton Democratic 61% Won 1996 Bill Clinton Democratic 72% Won 2000 Al Gore Democratic 62% Lost 2004 John Kerry Democratic 58% Lost 2008 Barack Obama Democratic 67% Won 2012 Barack Obama Democratic 71% Won 2016 Hillary Clinton Democratic 65% Lost 2020 Joe Biden Democratic 63% Won Maria Salazar, a journalist, broadcast television anchor and Republican House Member from Florida. She is of Cuban heritage. In Florida, even though Trump won Florida and gained Hispanic voters, Biden kept 53% of the Hispanic vote and Trump 45%. According to NBC News exit polls, 55% of Cuban Americans, 30% of Puerto Ricans and 48% of other Hispanics voted for Trump.[291] Julie Chavez Rodriguez the granddaughter of American labor leader, Cesar Chavez and American labor activist Helen Fabela Chávez became the director of the White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs in 2021. Subsections of Hispanic voters have a range of historical influences vying to affect their votes. Cuban American voters, mostly concentrated in south Florida, tend to vote Republican in part because of their anathema for socialism, the party of Fidel Castro's government that many of their families fled. Mexican Americans, however, have no such historical relationship with either party. Puerto Rican voters who have left the island might be influenced by the territory's move towards statehood, as a referendum for Trump's relief effort after Hurricane Maria, or regarding how it is taxed.[292] Nationwide, Hispanics cast 16.6 million votes in 2020, an increase of 30.9% over the 2016 presidential election.[293] After representative Filemon Vela Jr. resigned, Mayra Flores won a special election to succeed him, she won the election to the United States House of Representatives in June 2022.[294][295] She will be the first Mexican-born woman to serve in the United States Congress.[295][296] Notable contributions Hispanic Americans have made distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, film, literature, sports, business and finance, and science.[297] Arts and entertainment In 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award was created. It is a distinction given to Hispanic performers (actors, film and television directors and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza. The number of Latin nominees at the Grammy Awards lag behind. Talking to People magazine ahead of music's biggest night in 2021, Grammy nominees J Balvin and Ricky Martin reflected on what it is mean to continue to represent Hispanics at awards shows like the Grammys. Martin, who served as a pioneer for the "Latin crossover" in the '90s told "When you get nominated, it's the industry telling you, 'Hey Rick, you did a good job this year, congratulations.' Yes, I need that", the 49-year-old says. "When you walk into the studio, you say, 'This got a Grammy potential.' You hear the songs that do and the ones that don't. It's inevitable." Like Selena Gomez tapping into her roots, the influence Hispanics and reggaetón are having on the mainstream is undeniable.[298] Music Main article: Hispanic music in the United States Desi Arnaz actor, musician, bandleader, comedian and film and television producer and generally credited as the innovators of the syndicated rerun There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Christopher Rios better known by his stage name Big Pun, Jennifer Lopez, Joan Baez, Selena Gomez, Demi Lovato, Fergie, Pitbull, Victoria Justice, Linda Ronstadt, Zack de la Rocha, Gloria Estefan, Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, Kat DeLuna, Selena, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Carlos Santana, Christina Aguilera, Bruno Mars, Mariah Carey, Jerry García, Dave Navarro, Santaye, Elvis Crespo, Romeo Santos, Tom Araya, Becky G, Juan Luis Guerra, Cardi B, Giselle Bellas, Bad Bunny, all of the members of all-female band Go Betty Go, Camila Cabello, and two members of girl group Fifth Harmony: Lauren Jauregui and Ally Brooke. Jennifer Lopez, a Nuyorican often described as a triple threat entertainer, has extensive discographies performed in both English and Spanish. Hispanic music imported from Cuba (chachachá, mambo, and rhumba) and Mexico (ranchera and mariachi) had brief periods of popularity during the 1950s. Examples of artists include Celia Cruz, who was a Cuban-American singer and the most popular Latin artist of the 20th century, gaining twenty-three gold albums during her career. Bill Clinton awarded her the National Medal of Arts in 1994. Among the Hispanic American musicians who were pioneers in the early stages of rock and roll were Ritchie Valens, who scored several hits, most notably "La Bamba" and Herman Santiago, who wrote the lyrics to the iconic rock and roll song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love". Songs that became popular in the United States and are heard during the holiday/Christmas season include "¿Dónde Está Santa Claus?", a novelty Christmas song with 12-year-old Augie Ríos which was a hit record in 1959 and featured the Mark Jeffrey Orchestra; and "Feliz Navidad" by José Feliciano. Miguel del Aguila wrote 116 works and has three Latin Grammy nominations. In 1986, Billboard magazine introduced the Hot Latin Songs chart which ranks the best-performing songs on Spanish-language radio stations in the United States. Seven years later, Billboard initiated the Top Latin Albums which ranks top-selling Latin albums in the United States.[299] Similarly, the Recording Industry Association of America incorporated "Los Premios de Oro y Platino" (The Gold and Platinum Awards) to certify Latin recordings which contains at least 50% of its content recorded in Spanish.[300] In 1989, Univision established the Lo Nuestro Awards which became the first award ceremony to recognize the most talented performers of Spanish-language music and was considered to be the "Hispanic Grammys".[301][302] In 2000, the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS) established the Latin Grammy Awards to recognize musicians who perform in Spanish and Portuguese.[303] Unlike The Recording Academy, LARAS extends its membership internationally to Hispanophone and Lusophone communities worldwide beyond the Americas, particularly the Iberian Peninsula.[304] Becky G won favorite female Latin artist, a brand new category at the AMAs in 2020.[305] For the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, the academy announced several changes for different categories and rules: the category Latin Pop Album has been renamed Best Latin Pop or Urban Album, while Latin Rock, Urban or Alternative Album has been renamed Best Latin Rock or Alternative Album. Film, radio, television, and theatre Main article: List of Hispanics and Latinos in film Anthony Quinn Two-time Academy Award winner Anthony Quinn, who was born in Chihuahua, Mexico Chita Rivera Chita Rivera, the first Hispanic woman and first Hispanic American awarded the Kennedy Center Honors and Presidential Medal of Freedom Antonio Banderas Antonio Banderas, a Spanish actor who has starred in many films Sofía Vergara Sofía Vergara, a Colombian-American actress and model, on the red carpet at the 77th Golden Globe Awards in 2020 American cinema has often reflected and propagated negative stereotypes towards foreign nationals and ethnic minorities.[306] For example, Hispanics are largely depicted as sexualized figures such as the Hispanic macho or the Hispanic vixen, gang members, (illegal) immigrants, or entertainers.[307] However representation in Hollywood has enhanced in latter times of which it gained noticeable momentum in the 1990s and does not emphasize oppression, exploitation, or resistance as central themes. According to Ramírez Berg, third wave films "do not accentuate Chicano oppression or resistance; ethnicity in these films exists as one fact of several that shape characters' lives and stamps their personalities".[308] Filmmakers like Edward James Olmos and Robert Rodriguez were able to represent the Hispanic American experience like none had on screen before, and actors like Hilary Swank, Michael Peña, Jordana Brewster, Ana de Armas, Jessica Alba, Natalie Martinez and Jenna Ortega have become successful. In the last decade, minority filmmakers like Chris Weitz, Alfonso Gomez-Rejon and Patricia Riggen have been given applier narratives. Portrayal in films of them include La Bamba (1987), Selena (1997), The Mask of Zorro (1998), Goal II: Living the Dream (2007), The 33 (2015), Ferdinand (2017), Dora and the Lost City of Gold (2019), and Josefina López's Real Women Have Curves, originally a play which premiered in 1990 and was later released as a film in 2002.[308] Hispanics have also contributed some prominent actors and others to the film industry. Of Puerto Rican origin: José Ferrer (the first Hispanic actor to win an acting Academy Award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac), Auliʻi Cravalho, Rita Moreno, Chita Rivera, Raul Julia, Rosie Perez, Rosario Dawson, Esai Morales, Aubrey Plaza, Jennifer Lopez, Joaquin Phoenix and Benicio del Toro. Of Mexican origin: Emile Kuri (the first Hispanic to win an Academy Award – for Best Production Design – in 1949), Ramon Novarro, Dolores del Río, Lupe Vélez, Anthony Quinn, Ricardo Montalbán, Katy Jurado, Adrian Grenier, Jay Hernandez, Salma Hayek, Danny Trejo, Jessica Alba, Tessa Thompson, and Kate del Castillo. Of Cuban origin: Cesar Romero, Mel Ferrer, Andy García, Cameron Diaz, María Conchita Alonso, William Levy, and Eva Mendes. Of Dominican origin: Maria Montez and Zoe Saldana. Of partial Spanish origin: Rita Hayworth, Martin Sheen. Other outstanding figures are: Anita Page (of Salvadoran origin), Fernando Lamas, Carlos Thompson, Alejandro Rey and Linda Cristal (of Argentine origin), Raquel Welch (of Bolivian origin), John Leguizamo (of Colombian origin), Oscar Isaac (of Guatemalan origin), and Pedro Pascal (of Chilean origin). In stand-up comedy, Cristela Alonzo, Anjelah Johnson, Paul Rodríguez, Greg Giraldo, Cheech Marin, George Lopez, Freddie Prinze, Jade Esteban Estrada, Carlos Mencia, John Mendoza, Gabriel Iglesias and others are prominent. Some of the Hispanic actors who achieved notable success in U.S. television include Desi Arnaz, Lynda Carter, Jimmy Smits, Charo, Jencarlos Canela, Christian Serratos, Carlos Pena Jr., Eva Longoria, Sofía Vergara, Ricardo Antonio Chavira, Jacob Vargas, America Ferrera, Benjamin Bratt, Ricardo Montalbán, Hector Elizondo, Mario Lopez, America Ferrera, Karla Souza, Diego Boneta, Erik Estrada, Cote de Pablo, Freddie Prinze, Lauren Vélez, Isabella Gomez, Justina Machado, Tony Plana Stacey Dash, and Charlie Sheen. Kenny Ortega is an Emmy Award-winning producer, director and choreographer who has choreographed many major television events such as Super Bowl XXX, the 72nd Academy Awards and Michael Jackson's memorial service. Hispanics are underrepresented in U.S. television, radio, and film. This is combatted by organizations such as the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA), founded in 1975; and National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC), founded in 1986.[309] Together with numerous Hispanic civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks in 1999, after discovering that there were no Hispanic on any of their new prime time series that year.[310] This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic talent and other staff in all of the networks. Latino Public Broadcasting (LPB) funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These programs are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States. The 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards was criticized by Hispanics; there were no major nominations for Hispanic performers, despite the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences publicizing their improved diversity in 2020. While there was a record number of black nominees, there was only one individual Hispanic nomination. Hispanic representation groups said the greater diversity referred only to more African American nominees.[311][312] When the Los Angeles Times reported the criticism using the term "black", it was itself criticized for erasing Afro-Hispanics, a discussion that then prompted more investigation into this under-represented minority ethnic group in Hollywood.[313] John Leguizamo boycotted the Emmys because of its lack of Hispanic nominees.[314] Fashion In the world of fashion, notable Hispanic designers include Oscar de la Renta, Carolina Herrera, Narciso Rodriguez, Manuel Cuevas, Maria Cornejo,[315] among others. Christy Turlington, Lais Ribeiro, Adriana Lima, Gisele Bündchen and Lea T achieved international fame as models. Artists Rita de Acosta Lydig Notable Hispanic artists include Jean-Michel Basquiat, Carmen Herrera, Gronk, Luis Jiménez, Félix González-Torres, Ana Mendieta, Joe Shannon, Richard Serra, Abelardo Morell, Bill Melendez, María Magdalena Campos Pons, Sandra Ramos, Myrna Báez and Soraida Martinez. Business and finance See also: Hispanic 500 Real estate developer Jorge M. Pérez The total number of Hispanic-owned businesses in 2002 was 1.6 million, having grown at triple the national rate for the preceding five years.[58] Hispanic business leaders include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca-Cola Company.[316] Advertising Mexican-American magnate Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major league team in the United States when he purchased the Los Angeles Angels baseball club.[317] Also a major sports team owner is Mexican-American Linda G. Alvarado, president and CEO of Alvarado Construction, Inc. and co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team. There are several Hispanics on the Forbes 400 list of richest Americans. Alejandro Santo Domingo and his brother Andres Santo Domingo inherited their fathers stake in SABMiller, now merged with Anheuser-Busch InBev. The brothers are ranked No. 132 and are each worth $4.8bn.[318] Jorge Perez founded and runs The Related Group. He built his career developing and operating low-income multifamily apartments across Miami.[319][320] He is ranked No. 264 and is worth $3bn.[318] The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the United States is Goya Foods, because of World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders.[321] Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico's first television station[322] and now the second largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with an average viewership over one million in primetime. Samuel A. Ramirez Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm, Ramirez & Co.[323][324] Nina Tassler is president of CBS Entertainment since September 2004. She is the highest-profile Hispanic in network television and one of the few executives who has the power to approve the airing or renewal of series. Since 2021, Hispanic Executive has released a list of 30 under 30 executives in the United States. Members include financial analyst Stephanie Nuesi, fashion entrepreneur Zino Haro, and Obama scholar Josue de Paz. Government and politics See also: List of Hispanic Americans in the United States Congress Carlos Gutierrez Sonia Sotomayor, associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States As of 2007, there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Hispanic origin.[325] In the House of Representatives, Hispanic representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco and Manuel Lujan Jr., out of almost two dozen former representatives. Current representatives include Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Jose E. Serrano, Luis Gutiérrez, Nydia Velázquez, Xavier Becerra, Lucille Roybal-Allard, Loretta Sanchez, Rubén Hinojosa, Mario Díaz-Balart, Raul Grijalva, Ben R. Lujan, Jaime Herrera Beutler, Raul Labrador and Alex Mooney—in all, they number thirty. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Mel Martinez, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya and Ken Salazar. As of January 2011, the U.S. Senate includes Hispanic members Bob Menendez, a Democrat and Republicans Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, all Cuban Americans.[326] Numerous Hispanics hold elective and appointed office in state and local government throughout the United States.[327] Current Hispanic Governors include Republican Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and Republican New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez; upon taking office in 2011, Martinez became the first Hispanic woman governor in the history of the United States.[328] Former Hispanic governors include Democrats Jerry Apodaca, Raul Hector Castro, and Bill Richardson, as well as Republicans Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Romualdo Pacheco and Bob Martinez. Catherine Cortez Masto, first Hispanic U.S. Senator Secretary Julian Castro candidate for US President and his twin brother Representative Joaquin Castro Since 1988,[329] when Ronald Reagan appointed Lauro Cavazos the Secretary of Education, the first Hispanic United States Cabinet member, Hispanic Americans have had an increasing presence in presidential administrations. Hispanics serving in subsequent cabinets include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Henry Cisneros, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; Manuel Lujan Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Rosa Rios is the current US Treasurer, including the latest three, were Hispanic women. In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Supreme Court Associate Justice of Hispanic origin. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives. Groups like the United States Hispanic Leadership Institute (USHLI) work to achieve the promises and principles of the United States by "promoting education, research, and leadership development, and empowering Hispanics and similarly disenfranchised groups by maximizing their civic awareness, engagement, and participation".[330] Literature and journalism George Santayana was a philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. Jorge Majfud is a professor, essayist, and novelist Jorge Ramos has won eight Emmy Awards. José Díaz-Balart Further information: American literature in Spanish See also: Category:Hispanic and Latino American writers and National Association of Hispanic Journalists Writers and their works Julia Álvarez (How the García Girls Lost Their Accents) Rudolfo Anaya (Bless Me, Ultima and Heart of Aztlan) Marie Arana (American Chica, Bolívar: American Liberator and Silver, Sword, and Stone Sandra Cisneros (The House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories) Junot Díaz (The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao) Cecilia Domeyko (Sacrifice on the Border) Ernest Fenollosa (art historian, Masters of Ukiyoe) Rigoberto González (Butterfly Boy: Memories of a Chicano Mariposa) Oscar Hijuelos (The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love) Jorge Majfud (Crisis and La frontera salvaje[331]). Micol Ostow ("Mind Your Manners, Dick and Jane", "Emily Goldberg Learns to Salsa")[332] Benito Pastoriza Iyodo (A Matter of Men and September Elegies) Alberto Alvaro Rios (Capirotada, Elk Heads on the Wall and The Iguana Killer) Tomas Rivera (...And the Earth did Not Devour Him) Richard Rodríguez (Hunger of Memory) George Santayana (novelist and philosopher: "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it") Sergio Troncoso (From This Wicked Patch of Dust and The Last Tortilla and Other Stories) Alisa Valdes-Rodriguez (Haters) Victor Villaseñor (Rain of Gold) Oscar Zeta Acosta (The Revolt of the Cockroach People) Journalists Cecilia Vega American journalist, currently serving as chief White House correspondent for ABC News. Jorge Ramos has won eight Emmy Awards and the Maria Moors Cabot Award for excellence in journalism. In 2015, Ramos was one of five selected as Time magazine's World's Most Influential People. José Díaz-Balart is currently the anchor for Noticias Telemundo, as well as anchor of NBC Nightly News on Saturdays. Paola Ramos, correspondent for Vice and is a contributor to Telemundo and MSNBC. Ana Cabrera currently works as a television news anchor for CNN in Manhattan. Natalie Morales is the Today Show West Coast anchor and appears on other programs including Dateline NBC and NBC Nightly News. María Elena Salinas CBS News contributor called the "Voice of Hispanic America" by The New York Times Morgan Radford, reporter employed by NBC News and MSNBC, was a production assistant for ESPN. Geraldo Rivera has won a Peabody Award and appears regularly on Fox News programs such as The Five. John Quiñones, co-anchor of the ABC News program, Primetime and now hosts What Would You Do? Rubén Salazar, reporter for the Los Angeles Times and news director for KMEX, which was a Spanish language station. Maria Elvira Salazar, journalist and broadcast television anchor who worked for Telemundo, CNN en Español and Noticiero Univision. Michele Ruiz, former Los Angeles news anchor for KNBC-TV. Giselle Fernández, reporting and guest anchoring for CBS Early Show, CBS Evening News, NBC Today, NBC Nightly News; regular host for Access Hollywood. Elizabeth Pérez, television journalist for CNN en Español. Political strategists Mercedes Schlapp, American lobbyist and columnist for Fox News, including U.S. News & World Report and The Washington Times. Geovanny Vicente, political strategist, international consultant and columnist who writes for CNN. Military See also: Spain in the American Revolutionary War, Hispanics in the American Civil War, Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps, and Hispanic Americans in World War II Major General Luis R. Esteves, the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy ("West Point") Hispanics have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward.[333][334][335] 11% to 13% military personnel now are Hispanics and they have been deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and U.S. military missions and bases elsewhere.[336] Hispanics have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields but also reached the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign posts. Up to now, 43 Hispanics have been awarded the nation's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor (also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor). The following is a list of some notable Hispanics in the military: American Revolution Bernardo de Gálvez (1746–1786) – Spanish military leader and colonial administrator who aided the American Thirteen Colonies in their quest for independence and led Spanish forces against Britain in the Revolutionary War; since 2014, a posthumous honorary citizen of the United States Lieutenant Jorge Farragut Mesquida (1755–1817) – participated in the American Revolution as a lieutenant in the South Carolina Navy American Civil War Main article: Hispanics in the American Civil War David Farragut, first full admiral in the US Navy Diego Archuleta, first Hispanic to reach the military rank of Brigadier General Admiral David Farragut – promoted to vice admiral on December 21, 1864, and to full admiral on July 25, 1866, after the war, thereby becoming the first person to be named full admiral in the Navy's history.[337][338] Rear Admiral Cipriano Andrade – Mexican Navy rear admiral who fought for the Union. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Colonel Ambrosio José Gonzales – Cuban officer active during the bombardment of Fort Sumter; because of his actions, was appointed Colonel of artillery and assigned to duty as Chief of Artillery in the department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. Brigadier General Diego Archuleta (1814–1884) – member of the Mexican Army who fought against the United States in the Mexican–American War. During the American Civil War, he joined the Union Army (US Army) and became the first Hispanic to reach the military rank of brigadier general. He commanded The First New Mexico Volunteer Infantry in the Battle of Valverde. He was later appointed an Indian (Native Americans) Agent by Abraham Lincoln.[339] Colonel Carlos de la Mesa – grandfather of Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr. commanding general of the First Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily, and later the commander of the 104th Infantry Division during World War II. Colonel Carlos de la Mesa was a Spanish national who fought at Gettysburg for the Union Army in the Spanish Company of the "Garibaldi Guard" of the 39th New York State Volunteers.[340] Colonel Federico Fernández Cavada – commanded the 114th Pennsylvania Volunteer infantry regiment when it took the field in the Peach Orchard at Gettysburg[341] Colonel Miguel E. Pino – commanded the 2nd Regiment of New Mexico Volunteers, which fought at the Battle of Valverde in February and the Battle of Glorieta Pass and helped defeat the attempted invasion of New Mexico by the Confederate Army[342] Colonel Santos Benavides – commanded his own regiment, the "Benavides Regiment"; highest ranking Mexican-American in the Confederate Army[341] Major Salvador Vallejo – officer in one of the California units that served with the Union Army in the West[342] Captain Adolfo Fernández Cavada – served in the 114th Pennsylvania Volunteers at Gettysburg with his brother, Colonel Federico Fernandez Cavada; served with distinction in the Army of the Potomac from Fredericksburg to Gettysburg; "special aide-de-camp" to General Andrew A. Humphreys[341][343] Captain Rafael Chacón – Mexican American leader of the Union New Mexico Volunteers.[344] Captain Roman Anthony Baca – member of the Union forces in the New Mexico Volunteers; spy for the Union Army in Texas[342] Lieutenant Augusto Rodriguez – Puerto Rican native; officer in the 15th Connecticut Volunteer Infantry, of the Union Army; served in the defenses of Washington, D.C., and led his men in the Battles of Fredericksburg and Wyse Fork[345] Lola Sánchez – Cuban-born woman who became a Confederate spy; helped the Confederates obtain a victory against the Union forces in the "Battle of Horse Landing" Loreta Janeta Velázquez, also known as "Lieutenant Harry Buford" – Cuban woman who donned Confederate garb and served as a Confederate officer and spy during the American Civil War World War I Major General Luis R. Esteves, United States Army – in 1915, became the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy ("West Point"); organized the Puerto Rican National Guard Private Marcelino Serna – undocumented Mexican immigrant who joined the United States Army and became the most decorated soldier from Texas in World War I; first Hispanic to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross World War II Pedro del Valle – first Hispanic to reach the rank of lieutenant general Carmen Contreras-Bozak – first Hispanic women to serve in the Women's Army Corps See also: Hispanic Americans in World War II Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle – first Hispanic to reach the rank of lieutenant general; played an instrumental role in the seizure of Guadalcanal and Okinawa as commanding general of the U.S. 1st Marine Division during World War II Lieutenant General Elwood R. Quesada (1904–1993) – commanding general of the 9th Fighter Command, where he established advanced headquarters on the Normandy beachhead on D-Day plus one, and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent during World War II. He was the foremost proponent of "the inherent flexibility of air power", a principle he helped prove during the war. Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr. (1888–1969) – commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily during World War II; commander of the 104th Infantry Division Colonel Virgil R. Miller – regimental commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team, a unit composed of "Nisei" (second generation Americans of Japanese descent), during World War II; led the 442nd in its rescue of the Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division, in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France[346][347] Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano (1913–1980) – served in World War II; first Hispanic submarine commander First Lieutenant Oscar Francis Perdomo – of the 464th Fighter Squadron, 507th Fighter Group; the last "Ace in a Day" for the United States in World War II CWO2 Joseph B. Aviles Sr. – member of the United States Coast Guard; first Hispanic American to be promoted to chief petty officer; received a wartime promotion to chief warrant officer (November 27, 1944), thus becoming the first Hispanic American to reach that level as well[348] Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero – most decorated Hispanic soldier in the European Theatre of World War II PFC Guy Gabaldon, United States Marine Corps – captured over a thousand prisoners during the World War II Battle of Saipan Tech4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak – first Hispanic woman to serve in the United States Women's Army Corps, where she served as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions[349] Korean War Modesto Cartagena, most decorated Puerto Rican soldier in history Major General Salvador E. Felices, United States Air Force – flew in 19 combat missions over North Korea during the Korean War in 1953. In 1957, he participated in "Operation Power Flite", a historic project that was given to the Fifteenth Air Force by the Strategic Air Command headquarters. Operation Power Flite was the first around the world non-stop flight by an all-jet aircraft. First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez – the only Hispanic graduate of the United States Naval Academy ("Annapolis") to be awarded the Medal of Honor Sergeant First Class Modesto Cartagena – member of the 65th Infantry Regiment, an all-Puerto Rican regiment also known as "The Borinqueneers", during World War II and the Korean War; most decorated Puerto Rican soldier in history[350] Cuban Missile Crisis Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr. – second Hispanic four-star admiral; commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships during the Cuban Missile Crisis Vietnam War Sergeant First Class Jorge Otero Barreto a.k.a. "The Puerto Rican Rambo"– the most decorated Hispanic American soldier in the Vietnam War[351] After Vietnam Richard E. Cavazos, first Hispanic four-star general Antonia Novello, first woman and first Hispanic to serve as Surgeon General Lieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez – top commander of the Coalition forces during the first year of the occupation of Iraq, 2003–2004, during the Iraq War Lieutenant General Edward D. Baca – in 1994, became the first Hispanic Chief of the National Guard Bureau Vice Admiral Antonia Novello, M.D., Public Health Service Commissioned Corps – in 1990, became the first Hispanic (and first female) U.S. Surgeon General Vice Admiral Richard Carmona, M.D., Public Health Service Commissioned Corps – served as the 17th Surgeon General of the United States, under President George W. Bush Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina, USMC – made history by becoming the first Marine Corps officer to take command of a naval flotilla Rear Admiral Ronald J. Rábago – first person of Hispanic descent to be promoted to rear admiral (lower half) in the United States Coast Guard[352] Captain Linda Garcia Cubero, United States Air Force – in 1980, became the first Hispanic woman graduate of the United States Air Force Major General Erneido Oliva – deputy commanding general of the D.C. National Guard Brigadier General Carmelita Vigil-Schimmenti, United States Air Force – in 1985 became the first Hispanic female to attain the rank of brigadier general in the Air Force[353][354] Brigadier General Angela Salinas – on August 2, 2006, became the first Hispanic female to obtain a general rank in the Marines[355] Chief Master Sergeant Ramón Colón-López – pararescueman; in 2007, was the only Hispanic among the first six airmen to be awarded the newly created Air Force Combat Action Medal Specialist Hilda Clayton (1991–2013) – combat photographer with 55th Signal Company who captured the explosion that killed her and four Afghan soldiers.[356] Medal of Honor Main article: List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients The following 43 Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor: Philip Bazaar, Joseph H. De Castro, John Ortega, France Silva, David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Rudolph B. Davila, Marcario Garcia, Harold Gonsalves, David M. Gonzales, Silvestre S. Herrera, Jose M. Lopez, Joe P. Martinez, Manuel Perez Jr., Cleto L. Rodriguez, Alejandro R. Ruiz, Jose F. Valdez, Ysmael R. Villegas, Fernando Luis García, Edward Gomez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Baldomero Lopez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Joseph C. Rodriguez, John P. Baca, Roy P. Benavidez, Emilio A. De La Garza, Ralph E. Dias, Daniel Fernandez, Alfredo Cantu "Freddy" Gonzalez, Jose Francisco Jimenez, Miguel Keith, Carlos James Lozada, Alfred V. Rascon, Louis R. Rocco, Euripides Rubio, Hector Santiago-Colon, Elmelindo Rodrigues Smith, Jay R. Vargas, Humbert Roque Versace and Maximo Yabes. National intelligence In the spy arena, José Rodríguez, a native of Puerto Rico, was the deputy director of operations and subsequently Director of the National Clandestine Service (D/NCS), two senior positions in the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), between 2004 and 2007.[357] Lieutenant Colonel Mercedes O. Cubria (1903–1980), a.k.a. La Tía (The Aunt), was the first Cuban-born female officer in the United States Army. She served in the Women's Army Corps during World War II and in the United States Army during the Korean War, and was recalled into service during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In 1988, she was posthumously inducted into the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame.[358] Science and technology See also: Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers Luis Walter Álvarez was awarded the Nobel Prize of Physics in 1968. Laser physicist and author Francisco Javier Duarte Joseph Acaba, Puerto Rican-American astronaut Ellen Ochoa, first Hispanic woman to go into space Among Hispanic Americans who have excelled in science are Luis Walter Álvarez, Nobel Prize–winning physicist of Spanish descent, and his son Walter Alvarez, a geologist. They first proposed that an asteroid impact on the Yucatán Peninsula caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mario J. Molina won the Nobel Prize in chemistry and currently works in the chemistry department at the University of California, San Diego. Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered "Blanco 1", a galactic cluster.[359] F. J. Duarte is a laser physicist and author; he received the Engineering Excellence Award from the prestigious Optical Society of America for the invention of the N-slit laser interferometer.[360] Alfredo Quiñones-Hinojosa is the director of the Pituitary Surgery Program at Johns Hopkins Hospital and the director of the Brain Tumor Stem Cell Laboratory at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Physicist Albert Baez made important contributions to the early development of X-ray microscopes and later X-ray telescopes. His nephew John Carlos Baez is also a noted mathematical physicist. Francisco J. Ayala is a biologist and philosopher, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has been awarded the National Medal of Science and the Templeton Prize. Peruvian-American biophysicist Carlos Bustamante has been named a Searle Scholar and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow. Luis von Ahn is one of the pioneers of crowdsourcing and the founder of the companies reCAPTCHA and Duolingo. Colombian-American Ana Maria Rey received a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in atomic physics in 2013. Dr. Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. Gualberto Ruaño is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases.[361] Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation's cotton industry.[362] Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican-American Microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican-American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Dr. Helen Rodríguez Trías, an early advocate for women's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Hispanic president of the American Public Health Association. Some Hispanics have made their names in astronautics, including several NASA astronauts:[363] Franklin Chang-Diaz, the first Hispanic NASA astronaut, is co-recordholder for the most flights in outer space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Dr. Orlando Figueroa, mechanical engineer and director of Mars exploration in NASA; Amri Hernández-Pellerano, engineer who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Olga D. González-Sanabria won an R&D 100 Award for her role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries" which help enable the International Space Station power system. Mercedes Reaves, research engineer and scientist who is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. Dr. Pedro Rodríguez, inventor and mechanical engineer who is the director of a test laboratory at NASA and of a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Dr. Felix Soto Toro, electrical engineer and astronaut applicant who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system); Ellen Ochoa, a pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Joseph Acaba, Fernando Caldeiro, Sidney Gutierrez, José M. Hernández, Michael López-Alegría, John Olivas and George Zamka, who are current or former astronauts. Sports See also: Hispanic and Latino athletes in American sports Football Tony Romo, Mexican American quarterback for the Dallas Cowboys There have been far fewer football and basketball players, let alone star players, but Tom Flores was the first Hispanic head coach and the first Hispanic quarterback in American professional football, and won Super Bowls as a player, as assistant coach and as head coach for the Oakland Raiders. Anthony Múñoz is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranked No. 17 on Sporting News's 1999 list of the 100 greatest football players, and was the highest-ranked offensive lineman. Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, and Joe Kapp is inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame and College Football Hall of Fame. Steve Van Buren, Martin Gramatica, Victor Cruz, Tony Gonzalez, Ted Hendricks, Marc Bulger, Tony Romo and Mark Sanchez can also be cited among successful Hispanics in the National Football League (NFL). Baseball Alex Rodriguez Hispanics have played in the Major Leagues since the very beginning of organized baseball, with Cuban player Esteban Bellán being the first (1873).[364][365] The large number of Hispanic American stars in Major League Baseball (MLB) includes players like Ted Williams (considered by many to be the greatest hitter of all time), Sammy Sosa, Alex Rodriguez, Alex Rios, Miguel Cabrera, Lefty Gómez, Adolfo Luque, Iván Rodríguez, Carlos González, Roberto Clemente, Adrián González, Jose Fernandez, David Ortiz, Juan Marichal, Fernando Valenzuela, Nomar Garciaparra, Albert Pujols, Omar Vizquel, managers Miguel Angel Gonzalez (the first Hispanic Major League manager),[366][367] Al López, Ozzie Guillén and Felipe Alou, and General Manager Omar Minaya. Hispanics in the MLB Hall of Fame include Roberto Alomar, Luis Aparicio, Rod Carew, Orlando Cepeda, Juan Marichal, Pedro Martínez, Tony Pérez, Iván Rodríguez, Ted Williams, Reggie Jackson, Mariano Rivera, Edgar Martinez and Roberto Clemente. Afro-Hispanic players Martin Dihigo, Jose Mendez and Cristóbal Torriente are Hispanic Hall of Famers who played in the Negro leagues.[368] Basketball Puerto Rican NBA All-star Carmelo Anthony Trevor Ariza, Mark Aguirre, Carmelo Anthony, Manu Ginóbili, Carlos Arroyo, Gilbert Arenas, Rolando Blackman, Pau Gasol, Jose Calderon, José Juan Barea and Charlie Villanueva can be cited in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Dick Versace made history when he became the first person of Hispanic heritage to coach an NBA team. Rebecca Lobo was a major star and champion of collegiate (National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)) and Olympic basketball and played professionally in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Diana Taurasi became just the seventh player ever to win an NCAA title, a WNBA title and as well an Olympic gold medal. Orlando Antigua became in 1995 the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. Tennis Tennis players includes legend Pancho Gonzales and Olympic tennis champions and professional players Mary Joe Fernández and Gigi Fernández and 2016 Puerto Rican Gold Medalist Monica Puig.[369] Soccer Bocanegra with the United States national soccer team in 2010 Hispanics are present in all major American sports and leagues, but have particularly influenced the growth in popularity of soccer in the United States. Soccer is the most popular sport across the Spanish-speaking world, and Hispanics brought the heritage of soccer playing to the United States. Major League Soccer teams such as Chivas USA, LA Galaxy and the Houston Dynamo, for example, have a fanbase composed primarily of Mexican Americans.[370][371][372] Roger Espinoza, Honduran player of the Sporting Kansas City. Association football players in the Major League Soccer (MLS) includes several like Tab Ramos, Claudio Reyna, Omar Gonzalez, Marcelo Balboa, Roger Espinoza and Carlos Bocanegra. Swimming Swimmers Ryan Lochte (the second-most decorated swimmer in Olympic history measured by total number of medals)[373] and Dara Torres (one of three women with the most Olympic women's swimming medals), both of Cuban ancestry,[374] have won multiple medals at various Olympic Games over the years. Torres is also the first American swimmer to appear in five Olympic Games.[375] Maya DiRado, of Argentine ancestry, won four medals at the 2016 games, including two gold medals.[369] Other sports De La Hoya in 2008 Boxing's first Hispanic American world champion was Solly Smith. Some other champions include Oscar De La Hoya, Miguel Cotto, Bobby Chacon, Brandon Ríos, Michael Carbajal, John Ruiz, Andy Ruiz Jr. and Mikey Garcia. Ricco Rodriguez, Tito Ortiz, Diego Sanchez, Nick Diaz, Nate Diaz, Dominick Cruz, Frank Shamrock, Gilbert Melendez, Roger Huerta, Carlos Condit, Tony Ferguson, Jorge Masvidal, Kelvin Gastelum, Henry Cejudo and UFC Heavy Weight Champion Cain Velasquez have been competitors in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) of mixed martial arts. In 1991, Bill Guerin whose mother is Nicaraguan became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was also selected to four NHL All-Star Games. In 1999, Scott Gomez won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award.[376] Figure skater Rudy Galindo; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy López and Lee Trevino; softball player Lisa Fernández; and Paul Rodríguez Jr., X Games professional skateboarder, are all Hispanic Americans who have distinguished themselves in their sports. In gymnastics, Laurie Hernandez, who is of Puerto Rican ancestry, was a gold medalist at the 2016 Games.[369] In sports entertainment we find the professional wrestlers Hulk Hogan, Alberto Del Rio, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero, Tyler Black and Melina Pérez and executive Vickie Guerrero. Hispanophobia President Trump and Senator John Cornyn while they are visiting survivors of the 2019 El Paso shooting, which was a hispanophobic terrorist attack in El Paso, Texas Main articles: Hispanophobia and Anti-Mexican sentiment In countries where the majority of the population is descended from immigrants, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of nativism, racism and xenophobia.[377] Throughout US history, Hispanophobia has existed to varying degrees, and it was largely based on ethnicity, race (see Racism in the United States), culture, Anti-Catholicism (see Anti-Catholicism in the United States), economic and social conditions in Hispanic America, and opposition to the use of the Spanish language.[378][379][380][381] In 2006, Time magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily as a result of anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.[382] According to Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) statistics, the number of anti-Hispanic hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003 (albeit from a low level). In California, the state with the largest Hispanic population, the number of hate crimes which were committed against Hispanics almost doubled.[383] In 2009, the FBI reported that 4,622 of the 6,604 hate crimes which were recorded in the United States were anti-Hispanic, comprising 70.3% of all recorded hate crimes, the highest percentage of all of the hate crimes which were recorded in 2009. This percentage is contrasted by the fact that 34.6% of all of the hate crimes which were recorded in 2009 were anti-black, 17.9% of them were anti-homosexual, 14.1% of them were anti-Jewish, and 8.3% of them were anti-white.[384] See also icon Hispanic and Latino Americans portal Places of settlement in United States: List of U.S. communities with Hispanic- or Latino-majority in the 2010 census List of U.S. cities with large Hispanic and Latino populations List of U.S. cities by Spanish-speaking population Hispanics and Latinos in New Jersey Hispanics and Latinos in Massachusetts Hispanics and Latinos in Washington, D.C. Hispanics and Latinos in California Hispanics and Latinos in Arizona Hispanics and Latinos in New Mexico Hispanics and Latinos in Texas Hispanics and Latinos in Nevada Hispanics and Latinos in Florida Hispanics and Latinos in New York Diaspora: Hispanics Hispanic and Latin American Australians Hispanic and Latin American Canadians Latin Americans in the United Kingdom Hispanidad Latino diaspora Latin American Asian Latin Americans in Europe Individuals: List of Hispanic and Latino Americans Hispanics and Latinos in the American Civil War Hispanic and Latino Americans in World War II Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Air Force Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Coast Guard Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Marine Corps Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Navy Hispanic and Latino Admirals in the United States Navy Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Naval Academy Other Hispanic and Latino Americans topics: Latin America–United States relations National Alliance for Hispanic Health Portugal–United States relations Spain–United States relations White Hispanic Americans List of U.S. place names of Spanish origin Latino National Survey, 2006 Myrtle GONZALEZ appeared in : 1917 - Mutiny 1916 - The Secret of the swamp 1916 - God's crucible 1916 - The Girl of Lost Lake 1917 The Show Down 1917 The Greater Law 1917 Southern Justice 1917 Mutiny 1917 God's Crucible 1916 The End of the Rainbow 1916 A Romance of Billy Goat Hill 1916 The Pinnacle 1916 The Girl of Lost Lake 1916 The Secret of the Swamp 1916 The Unexpected Scoop 1916 It Happened in Honolulu 1916 Grouches and Smiles 1916 Her Great Part 1916 The Thief of the Desert 1916 Miss Blossom 1916 The Gambler 1916 The Brink 1916 Bill's Wife 1916 Fool's Gold 1916 The Secret Foe 1916 Lonesomeness 1916 The Windward Anchor 1916 The Heart of Bonita 1916 Her Greatest Story 1916 The Wise Man and the Fool 1916 Her Dream Man 1916 Missy 1915 The Terrible Truth 1915 The Bride of the Nancy Lee 1915 Her Last Flirtation 1915 Does It End Right ? 1915 Inside Facts 1915 The Ebony Casket 1915 Through Troubled Waters 1915 His Golden Grain 1915 A Scandal in Hickville 1915 The Quarrel 1915 The Repentance of Dr. Blinn 1915 All on Account of Towser 1915 A Natural Man 1915 The Man from the Desert 1915 A Child of the North 1915 The Chalice of Courage 1915 The Game of Life 1915 The Legend of the Lone Tree 1914 Love Will Out 1914 The Level 1914 The Sage-Brush Gal 1914 Sisters 1914 The Choice 1914 Anne of the Mines 1914 Ward's Claim 1914 His Wife and His Work 1914 The Power to Forgive 1914 Captain Alvarez 1914 The Sea Gull 1914 Tony, the Greaser 1914 The Kiss 1914 The Little Sheriff 1914 Millions for Defence 1914 The Ghosts 1914 The Yaqui's Revenge 1914 Buffalo Jim 1914 The Winner Wins 1914 Tainted Money 1914 The Masked Dancer 1914 Their Interest in Common 1914 Francine 1913 Her Husband's Friend 1913 Any Port in a Storm 1913 The Uprising of Ann 1913 Sacrifice 1913 Deception 1913 Thieves 1913 The White Feather 1913 Salvation Sal 1913 The Courage of the Commonplace 1913 The Spell 1913 The Yellow Streak Myrtle Gonzalez was born on September 28, 1891 in Los Angeles, California. Her father, Manuel, was a grocer, and her mother, Lillian, once performed as an opera singer. She had a younger sister named Stella and a younger brother named Manuel Jr.  It became apparent when she was still a child that Myrtle had inherited her mother's lovely soprano singing voice. She started out singing in church and at local charity events and appeared in a play or two around town.  Myrtle didn't have to go very far to the movie studios since they had just recently located to California. She made her film debut in a 1913 short called The Yellow Streak. The film interestingly enough also featured a young actress named Margaret Gibson (who sometimes went by the name Patricia Palmer). Margaret wasn't a big star, but she did make the headlines when she died in 1964 by confessing to the murder of William Desmond Taylor. There isn't any surviving evidence or record to back up her claim, but there is also nothing to NOT back up the confession. Pretty interesting. Sorry for the detour there. Back to Myrtle! For the next year, she appeared in quite a few shorts before appearing in her first feature film, Captain Alvarez, which also starred William Desmond Taylor and Edith Storey.  All together, Myrtle appeared in 80 films, playing gutsy heroine roles who thrived in the outdoors. She made her last film appearance in 1917. Myrtle Gonzalez passed away on October 22, 1918 at age 27 in Los Angeles. She had become one of the many, many victims of the Spanish flu pandemic. She also apparently had been born with a weak heart, and that wouldn't have helped the matter much if that was the case. She was buried in the Gonzalez family plot at the Calvary Cemetery in Los Angeles. Myrtle may have lived a short life, but she managed to put a lot of life into her short stay. For instance, she was married twice and had a son. Her first husband was an actor named James Parks Jones. The couple had one son in 1911 named James Park Jones Jr. I am not sure when they were married or when they divorced. Her second marriage was in 1917 to actor/director, Allen Watt. It was soon after they married that Myrtle decided to give up her screen career, but it was also around the time that she started to get sick. The couple remained married until her death. Her son passed away in 1970 and is supposedly buried in the same cemetery as his mother. Myrtle should really be remembered more because she is regarded as the first Latin/Hispanic actress in Hollywood. A film magazine writer gave her the nickname of "The Virgin White Lily of the Screen."  The internet giant's tribute takes place on the anniversary of the premiere of one of its best-known films: The Level (1914), while extolling its ephemeral but prolific career, which began in the seventh art in 1913. In this way, the illustration created by the artist Ana Ramírez, recalls the Mexican-American actress, who died at only 26 years of age, a victim of the flu pandemic in 1918. According to the search engine, González was a pioneer in standing out in the Hollywood industry regardless of her origin, she also played strong women who persevered in adversity with strength and dignity as a sign of her pride in "that Hispanic heritage." With a portion of her films treasured in the United States Library of Congress, González "had a beautiful soprano voice, often sang at church and local charity events as a child" and when film production relocates from New York to Los Angeles, "he took the opportunity to get involved in the cinema," the text reports. From the silent film studio Vitagraph Company of America, he made his film debut in The Yellow Streak and later acted in feature films such as The Secret of the Swamp and The Girl of Lost Lake, under the production of Universal Studios. One of the aspects that this doodle highlights is her ability to interpret “daring and nature-loving heroines”, which forced her to adapt to filming in diverse climates, such as snow, as shown in the image. She starred in at least 78 silent era motion pictures from 1913 to 1917, of which 66 were one and two-reel shorts. She is regarded as Hollywood"s first Latin and Hispanic movie star actress. Gonzalez was best known for her role as Enid Maitland in Vitagraph"s six-reel feature length drama The Chalice of Courage (1915) opposite William Duncan. A magazine writer once called her "The Virgin White Lily of the Screen." Her siblings were Stella M. Gonzalez (1892–1965) and Manuel G. Gonzalez, Junior. (1898–?). Her father was a retail grocer, her mother a former opera and popular singer. From early childhood, Myrtle displayed remarkable dramatic talent, and she had a good soprano voice. She appeared in many local concerts and benefits and sang in church choirs. She later played juvenile parts on the stage with Fanny Davenport and Florence Stone. Gonzalez was first married to James Parks Jones. They divorced. They had one son, James Parks Jones, Junior. (c 1911-1970). James Jones, Junior had one daughter, Mary Louise Jones (Smith) (1933-2005). Because she grew up in Los Angeles, the shift of movie production to her hometown was a big advantage for her. Gonzalez worked for such studios as Vitagraph and Universal. In many of her roles, Gonzalez typified a vigorous out-of-doors type of heroine. During the last six years of her career, many of the movies she starred in were stories of the snow country and of the forests. On December 1, 1917, she and actor/director Allen Watt (1885–1944) were married in Los Los Angeles She then gave up her screen work and retired. Watt, who was formerly an assistant director at Universal, where they met, was then in the United States. Army and she returned with him to Camp Lewis, in Washington State. Her health was too frail for the climate, however, and Captain Watt was placed on the retirement list so he could return her to Southern California. He went back to work at Universal and began directing. The Courage of the Commonplace (1913) This short, thoughtful film from Vitagraph busts many of our ideas about the Nickelodeon era by proving that it was possible to treat movies as serious “art” before sound, outside of the feature-length format, and even if your name wasn’t D.W. Griffith. While it’s not exactly a happy story, it has an uplifting message about the values of simple people. The film takes place almost entirely on the confines of a small dirt farm that reeks of poverty and hard work. The star of the film (Mary Charleson), called Mary, seems to have endless chores and tasks to perform. As soon as she finishes one grueling activity, another one rises up in its place. We first see her moving a heavy tub of water when her two younger brothers run up, apparently having hurt themselves. She tends their wounds and we see that they are barefoot. She hauls off the bucket, and the next we see of her, she is hanging laundry to dry, presumably after washing it by hand. She comes into the house to find that her old, tired mother (Loyola O’Connor) needs help setting out the dinner for an entire brood of kids and the aging, wiry father (Charles Bennett). Then Mary’s “frivolous sister” (Myrtle Gonzalez) comes bouncing in. She is, really, the one ray of light in the film, wearing a smile more often than any other character, and also light-colored (if still very simple) dresses. The next day, several important plot elements are added rapid-fire. First, we see Mary collecting eggs for sale at the market – her source of personal income. We also see the father driving his old horses to plow a field. One of them, “faithful old Dobbin,” has become ill. Finally, we see what Mary is saving up for, she receives a letter informing her of her acceptance to the “Household and Fine Arts School” at a reduced tuition. All of this comes quite rapidly within the first five minutes of the movie, and the rest plays out as you might expect. The “frivolous” sister goes on dates with a boy and goes to the movies, while Mary continues her life of drudgery, now interspersed with daydreams of a relatively idle academic life where she sits on well-trimmed lawns discussing Big Ideas with well-dressed people and plays tennis with boys. Then, on the day she is to leave, the horse dies, which will leave the family ruined. Of course, Mary swallows her dreams and gives the money to her father to buy a new horse. That simple summary does not transmit the poignancy or effectiveness of this movie. Its emotional pull didn’t diminish for me on repeat viewings – I started tearing up as soon as Mary’s letter arrived the third time through. It isn’t through any kind of fancy editing or camerawork that this movie becomes powerful, it’s just through its ability to tell a simple story that shows the viewer something old in a new way. That’s not to say that the technical side is a failure, there are adequate edits and occasional close-ups to emphasize the emotional state of the actors, but these work subtly, without being obvious or obtrusive. When they happen, it just “feels right” as if the director knew what would work without having to experiment heavily. Of course, something like this wouldn’t work without high quality acting, and Mary Charleson provides most of the emotional work the viewer sees. She constantly looks as if she struggles to finish the current task, only to look up immediately to see what else needs to be done. This is in counterpoint to her wistful looks of anticipation regarding her school plans, her plan of escape. The other actors each have a simple archetype to play out – the spoiled sister, the weary mother, the worried yet oblivious father, and all the hungry mouths to feed of the many siblings. But they take their roles seriously, and put real feeling into them. Particularly Gonzalez, whose smile almost lights up the bleakness of the farm, even though we know she doesn’t deserve happiness as much as Mary does. Vitagraph almost seems to scold its audience when the frivolous sister attends a Nickelodeon screening one of their movies, yet who would choose to be Mary rather than the sister? Myrtle Gonzalez was a Mexican silent film actress who died tragically young   She was born Myrtle Lillian Gonzalez on September 28, 1891 in Los Angels, California. Her father, Manuel Gonzalez, was a grocer whose family had immigrated from Mexico. Myrtle's mother, Lillian Cook, had been an opera singer and she inherited her soprano voice. She attended Sacred Heart Convent where she excelled at playing sports. During her childhood she began her show business career singing in local choirs. Then she started acting with the Belasco stock company in Los Angeles. In 1910 she married actor James Parks. Their son, James Parks Jr, was born the following year. Myrtle was signed by Vitagraph studios in 1913 and made her film debut in The Yellow Streak. She made several films with William Desmond Taylor including The Kiss and Her Husband's Friend. The petite actress was just over five feet tall with light brown hair. Myrtle was usually cast as a strong outdoorsy heroine. Myrtle GonzalezMyrtle Gonzalez Her performance in the feature length drama The Chalice of Courage won rave reviews. She became the first successful Mexican actress in Hollywood. While filming a scene in 1915 she fell off a horse and was badly injured. After leaving Vitagraph she was signed by Universal. Myrtle continued to get leading roles in movies like The End Of The Rainbow and The Secret Of The Swamp. She divorced her husband and married director Allen Watt in 1917. By this time she was suffering from numerous health problems including a weakened heart. Myrtle decided it was time to give up her acting career. Her final film was the 1917 drama The Show Down. During the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918 she became sick. Tragically on October 22, 1918 she died from heart failure. She was only twenty-seven years old. Myrtle was buried at Calvary Cemetery in Los Angeles, California. Myrtle Gonzalez grew up in Los Angeles. His father, born in California, is a grocer whose part of the family is originally from Mexico. His mother was born in New York to Irish immigrants. Gifted for singing, she went on stage from her childhood. Gonzalez plays in David Belasco's theater troupe. In 1912, she signed a contract with the film production company Vitagraph and became a popular actress, notably in westerns. In 1917, his filmography already included more than forty films. Gonzalez is recruited by Universal Pictures. Victim of the flu epidemic of 1918, she died at the age of 27. Filmography 1913: Any Port in a Storm by William J. Bauman 1914: The Yaqui's Revenge by Henry MacRae 1914: The Ghosts by William J. Bauman 1914: The Kiss by Ulysses Davis 1914: Captain Alvarez by Rollin S. Sturgeon 1914: His Wife and His Work by Ulysses Davis 1914: Anne of the Mines by Ulysses Davis 1915: The Chalice of Courage by Rollin S. Sturgeon 1915: Through Troubled Waters by Ulysses Davis 1915: The Bride of the Nancy Lee by Lynn Reynolds 1915: The Terrible Truth by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Missy by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Her Dream Man by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Wise Man and the Fool by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Her Greatest Story by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Heart of Bonita by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Windward Anchor by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Lonesomeness by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Secret Foe by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Richard Stanton's Fool's Gold 1916: Bill's Wife by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Brink by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Gambler by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Miss Blossom by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Thief of the Desert by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Her Great Part by Lynn Reynolds 1916: Grouches and Smiles by Lynn Reynolds 1916: It Happened in Honolulu by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Unexpected Scoop by Richard Stanton 1916: The Secret of the Swamp by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The Girl of Lost Lake by Lynn Reynolds 1916: A Romance of Billy Goat Hill by Lynn Reynolds 1916: The End of the Rainbow by Lynn Reynolds and Jeanie Macpherson 1917: God's Crucible by Lynn Reynolds 1917: Mutiny by Lynn Reynolds 1917: Southern Justice by Lynn Reynolds 1917: The Greater Law by Lynn Reynolds 1917: The Show Down by Lynn Reynolds
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