RUSSIAN SOVIET STATESMAN Vyacheslav Molotov PHOTO VINTAGE POLITICIAN

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176277810518 RUSSIAN SOVIET STATESMAN Vyacheslav Molotov PHOTO VINTAGE POLITICIAN. A VINTAGE ORIGINAL PHOTO ORIGINALLY FROM THE SAN FRANCISCO EXAMINER OF Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov was a Soviet politician and diplomat, an Old Bolshevik, and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s, when he rose to power as a protégé of Joseph Stalin. Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov[a] (/ˈmɒləˌtɒf, ˈmoʊ-/;[1] né Skryabin;[b] (OS 25 February) 9 March 1890 – 8 November 1986)[2] was a Soviet politician and diplomat, an Old Bolshevik, and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s, when he rose to power as a protégé of Joseph Stalin. Molotov served as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars from 1930 to 1941, and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956. He served from 1942 to 1957, when he was dismissed from the Presidium of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev. Molotov was removed from all positions in 1961 after several years of obscurity.
Vyacheslav Molotov, in full Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Molotov, original name Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Skryabin, (born February 25 [March 9, New Style], 1890, Kukarka [now Sovetsk], Russia—died November 8, 1986, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.), statesman and diplomat who was foreign minister and the major spokesman for the Soviet Union at Allied conferences during and immediately after World War II. The original copy of the constitution of the United States; housed in the National Archives, Washington, D.C. BRITANNICA QUIZ American History and Politics How many members are there of the U.S. Senate? A member and organizer of the Bolshevik party from 1906, Molotov was twice arrested (1909, 1915) for his revolutionary activities. After the Bolsheviks seized power (1917), Molotov worked in several provincial party organizations. In 1921 he became a member and a secretary of the Central Committee as well as a candidate member of the Politburo. He staunchly supported Joseph Stalin after the death of Vladimir Ilich Lenin (1924), and in December 1926 he was promoted to full membership in the Politburo. He then assumed control of the Moscow Party Committee and purged the Moscow organization of its anti-Stalin membership (1928–30). In 1930 he was made chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars (i.e., prime minister of the Soviet Union), a post he held until 1941. Shortly before the outbreak of World War II, Molotov was picked by Stalin to replace Maksim Litvinov as the Soviet commissar of foreign affairs (May 1939). In this capacity he negotiated the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact; August 1939) with Nazi Germany. In May 1941, when Stalin himself took over as chairman of the Council of Ministers (formerly Council of People’s Commissars), Molotov remained its first deputy chairman. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941), he also served on the State Defense Committee (the special war cabinet). Molotov arranged the Soviet alliances with Great Britain and the United States and attended the Allies’ conferences at Tehrān (1943), Yalta (1945), and Potsdam (1945) as well as the San Francisco Conference (1945), which created the United Nations. (It was during World War II that Molotov ordered the production of the bottles of inflammable liquid that became known as Molotov cocktails.) In his wartime dealings with the Allies and afterward, he earned a reputation for uncompromising hostility to the West. Molotov, Vyacheslav Molotov, Vyacheslav Vyacheslav Molotov. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 00:00 02:17 In March 1949 Molotov gave up the post of foreign minister, but, after Stalin died (March 1953), he resumed it, holding it until his political disagreements with Nikita Khrushchev resulted in his dismissal (June 1956). He was made minister of state control in November, but, when he joined the “antiparty group” that unsuccessfully tried to depose Khrushchev in June 1957, he lost all his high party and state offices. He subsequently served as ambassador to Mongolia and as the Soviet delegate to the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna (1960–61). In 1962, after engaging in more criticisms of Khrushchev, he was expelled from the Communist Party. He lived thereafter in undisturbed retirement in Moscow. The true last name of Vyacheslav Molotov, an outstanding Soviet politician and state figure, was Skryabin. Born in the village of Kukarka (in the northeastern part of European Russia), he was the son of a salesman and a rich merchant’s daughter. In the family there were ten children, three of whom died in infancy. While studying at school, Vyacheslav enjoyed playing the violin and writing poems. In 1902 he followed the example of his elder brothers and entered the secondary school in Kazan, where he became interested in revolutionary activities and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. Vyacheslav was one of the leaders of the illegal revolutionaries’ organization of his school, and in 1909 he was arrested for anti-government activity and exiled to the Vologda Region in northwestern Russia. After two years of banishment Vyacheslav went to Saint Petersburg and passed his secondary school exams without attending lectures. In 1911 he entered the Saint Petersburg Polytechnic Institute and continued his revolutionary activities in both Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Vyacheslav was among those who founded “The Pravda” (“The Truth”) newspaper, an illegal publication of the Bolsheviks headed by Josef Stalin. Vyacheslav wrote articles using the pseudonym “Molotov.” This last name originates from the word “molot” which means “large hammer” in Russian. It is the name with which Vyacheslav Skryabin became known in world history. In 1913 Molotov was arrested and exiled to Irkutsk (Siberia), but he escaped and secretly returned to Saint Petersburg. During the October Revolution of 1917 he was a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee. When Soviet power was established, Molotov, approved by Vladimir Lenin and supported by Stalin, gained his prominence impetuously. For over 30 years Vyacheslav Molotov was among the most influential figures in the USSR. It was he who determined internal and foreign policy of the state. Molotov proved himself a true supporter of Stalin, especially during the struggle for power that followed Lenin’s death in 1924. When Stalin overcame his political opponents he showed his gratitude to Molotov and made him his closest associate. In December 1930 Molotov headed the Soviet government. He sincerely believed that reprisals were necessary for overcoming opponents of Soviet power. Thus, his signature can be found on a number of verdicts sentencing thousands of people to exile or death. Stalin also made Molotov responsible for the process of so-called “collectivization of agriculture” in which peasants were integrated into collective farms belonging to the state. Some historians blame Molotov for using cruel measures. Others justify him and believe Molotov was the one who guaranteed the growth of gross domestic product, an increase in state defensive capabilities and the success of industrialization (building up the heavy industry of the USSR). Image from www.cfo.doe.gov Image from www.cfo.doe.gov Taking the position of Foreign Minister of the USSR in 1939, Molotov was obliged to adjust the relationship between Germany and the Soviet Union under Stalin’s special order. On 23 August 1939 Molotov and German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop signed the treaty known as the “Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact” (also called the “non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR”). There is a popular version that the agreement included secret protocol about the German and Soviet spheres of influence in Finland, the Baltic States, Bessarabia (nowadays - Moldova) and Poland. Nowadays some specialists deny the existence of the secret protocol. However, other historians believe that the secret protocol gave Hitler the opportunity to invade Poland on 1 September 1939. In 1940 Molotov turned 50. In honor of his birthday the city of Perm was renamed Molotov. His name was given to collective farms, plants and factories, and Molotov himself was honored with governmental awards. On 22 June 1941 the Nazis attacked the USSR. Molotov called Germany’s aggression “unprecedented perfidy” and addressed his famous words to the Soviet people: “The enemy will be defeated. The victory will be ours.” On 12 July Molotov and English ambassador Richard Cripps signed a treaty on joint actions in the war against Germany. In October 1941, when employees of the USSR Foreign Ministry were evacuated, Molotov stayed in Moscow with Stalin. One of Molotov’s major concerns was to provide military deliveries from the United Kingdom and the U.S., and to ensure the Second Front. He was constantly engaged in tough negotiations. As a diplomat, and not a military man, Molotov did not take part in troop operations. However, he was responsible for tank manufacturing. Molotov signed the governmental order, according to which special bottles containing ignition agents were produced. They were used against tank attacks and were given the unofficial name of “Molotov’s cocktail.” Image from gorod.tomsk.ru Image from gorod.tomsk.ru Vyacheslav Molotov played an important role in all the international conferences that influenced the post-war peace settlement, including those in Teheran, Yalta and Potsdam. He also participated in the San Francisco conference dedicated to the United Nations foundation. At the end of 1948 Molotov’s wife, Polina Zhemchuzhnaya, was arrested and exiled. Vyacheslav Molotov had married her in 1921 and they had daughter, Svetlana. According to Molotov’s contemporaries, Molotov loved his wife deeply and her arrest was a great tragedy for him. Polina Zhemchuzhnaya was allowed to return from exile only after Stalin’s death in 1953. In 1949 Molotov was removed from his position as Foreign Minister. He still attended international conferences and took part in diplomatic events, but it was obvious that he was no longer in Stalin’s favor. Probably, the Soviet leader wanted to get rid of his old associates and form “new guards.” After Stalin’s death Vyacheslav Molotov was re-appointed Foreign Minister. He supported Nikita Khrushchev in his struggle for power against Beria, but Molotov couldn’t find a mutual understanding with the new leader and once again lost his position as Foreign Minister. In 1957 he headed a group against Khrushchev. When the group’s “anti-Soviet activities” were discovered, Vyacheslav Molotov was removed from all governmental positions. He was appointed ambassador to Mongolia and left the USSR. In 1961 Molotov returned to Moscow and was expelled from the Communist Party. On 12 September 1963 he retired. He continued to lead an active life and persistently tried to rejoin the Communist Party. However, he achieved his goal only in 1984. At the end of his life Molotov admitted he was happy in old age and hoped to reach 100. But it never happened: Vyacheslav Molotov died on 7 November 1986 at the age of 96. He is buried at the Novodevichie Cemetery in Moscow. Vyacheslav Molotov, the son of middle-class parents, was born in Kukarka, Russia, on February 25, 1890. He was sent to Kazan to be educated and while there met a group of students who introduced him to the ideas of Karl Marx. In 1905 joined the Social Democratic Labour Party and after the 1905 Revolution began to associate with the Bolshevik faction of the party. Molotov was soon arrested and sent to Vologda province. After his release Molotov left Russia to join other Bolsheviks living in exile. He met Vladimir Lenin and it was agreed that he should return to St. Petersburg to organize the distribution of Zvezda, the party newspaper. Later Molotov was to become editorial secretary of Pravda. The Okhrana attempted to arrest Molotov in 1913 but he managed to escape and went into hiding. Several times he came close to being captured and so he moved to Moscow. However, several police spies had joined the Bolsheviks in Moscow and Molotov was soon arrested and deported to Irkutsk in Siberia. In 1915 Molotov escaped from Siberia and managed to get to Petrograd where he soon established himself as one of the leaders of the Bolsheviks in the city. He worked closely with Alexander Shlyapnikov and together they helped organize the strikes that resulted in the February Revolution. Molotov also became a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee that planned the October Revolution. In 1921 Molotov was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party and three years later became a member of the Politburo. After the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 Molotov switched his support to Joseph Stalin and played an important role in the launching of the Five Year Plan. In 1930 Joseph Stalin appointed Molotov as his prime minister. When the Jewish origins of Maxim Litvinov created problems for Stalin during his negotiations with Germany in 1939, Molotov became the new Commissar of Foreign Affairs. Soon afterwards Molotov signed the the Nazi-Soviet Pact. On September 25, 1940, the German foreign minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop sent a telegram to Molotov, informing him that Germany, Italy and Japan were about to sign a military alliance. Ribbentrop pointed out that the alliance was to be directed towards the United States and not the Soviet Union. "Its exclusive purpose is to bring the elements pressing for America's entry into the war to their senses by conclusively demonstrating to them if they enter the present struggle they will automatically have to deal with the three great powers as adversaries." Molotov already knew about the proposed German-Japanese Pact. Richard Sorge, a German journalist working in Tokyo, was a Soviet spy and had already told Molotov that Adolf Hitler was involved in negotiations with Japan. In Sorge's view, the pact was directed against the Soviet Union but it was not until December 1940, that he was able to send Molotov full details of Operation Barbarossa. During the Second World War Molotov was at Stalin's side during the conferences held at Teheran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945). He also attended the San Francisco Conference which created the United Nations. In 1949. Molotov lost his post when Joseph Stalin appointed Andrei Vyshinsky as his Foreign Minister. After the death of Stalin in 1953, Vyshinsky was sacked and Molotov returned to his old job. In June 1956, Molotov joined the group that unsuccessfully tried to oust Nikita Khrushchev as the new leader of the Soviet Union. Khrushchev demoted him to the position of ambassador to Mongolia. He was later denounced as being involved in the arrest and execution of Lev Kamenev, Gregory Zinoviev, Nickolai Bukharin, Alexei Rykov and other leading Bolsheviks of the 1930s. In 1964, Molotov was expelled from the party. Vyacheslav Molotov died in Moscow on November 8, 1986. Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov[a] (/ˈmɒləˌtɒf, ˈmoʊ-/;[1] né Skryabin;[b] (OS 25 February) 9 March 1890 – 8 November 1986)[2] was a Soviet politician and diplomat, an Old Bolshevik, and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s, when he rose to power as a protégé of Joseph Stalin. Molotov served as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars from 1930 to 1941, and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956. He served from 1942 to 1957, when he was dismissed from the Presidium of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev. Molotov was removed from all positions in 1961 after several years of obscurity. Molotov was the principal Soviet signatory of the German–Soviet non-aggression pact of 1939 (also known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact), whose most important provisions were added in the form of a secret protocol that stipulated an invasion of Poland and partition of its territory between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. After World War II (the Great Patriotic War), Molotov was involved in negotiations with the Western allies, in which he became noted for his diplomatic skills. He retained his place as a leading Soviet diplomat and politician until March 1949, when he fell out of Stalin's favour and lost the foreign affairs ministry leadership to Andrei Vyshinsky. Molotov's relationship with Stalin deteriorated further, with Stalin criticising Molotov in a speech to the 19th Party Congress. However, after Stalin's death in 1953, Molotov was staunchly opposed to Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation policy. Molotov defended Stalin's policies and legacy until his death in 1986, and harshly criticised Stalin's successors, especially Khrushchev. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life and career (1890–1930) 1.2 Premiership (1930–1941) 1.3 Minister of Foreign Affairs (1939–1949) 1.4 Post-war career (1949–1962) 1.5 Later years and death (1962–1986) 1.6 Legacy 2 Portrayals in media 3 Decorations and awards 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 8 External links Biography Early life and career (1890–1930) Molotov's birth house in Sovetsk, Kirov Oblast. Molotov was born Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Skryabin in the village of Kukarka, Yaransk Uyezd, Vyatka Governorate (now Sovetsk in Kirov Oblast), the son of a butter churner. Contrary to a commonly repeated error, he was not related to the composer Alexander Scriabin.[3] Throughout his teen years, he was described as "shy" and "quiet", always assisting his father with his business. He was educated at a secondary school in Kazan, and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1906, soon gravitating toward that organisation's radical Bolshevik faction, headed by V. I. Lenin.[4] Skryabin took the pseudonym "Molotov", derived from the Russian word молоток molotok (hammer), since he believed that the name had an "industrial" and "proletarian" ring to it.[4] He was arrested in 1909 and spent two years in exile in Vologda. In 1911, he enrolled at St Petersburg Polytechnic. Molotov joined the editorial staff of a new underground Bolshevik newspaper called Pravda, meeting Joseph Stalin for the first time in association with the project.[5] This first association between the two future Soviet leaders proved to be brief, however, and did not lead to an immediate close political association.[5] Molotov in 1917 Molotov worked as a so-called "professional revolutionary" for the next several years, writing for the party press and attempting to better organize the underground party.[5] He moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1914 at the time of the outbreak of World War I.[5] It was in Moscow the following year that Molotov was again arrested for his party activity, this time being deported to Irkutsk in eastern Siberia.[5] In 1916, he escaped from his Siberian exile and returned to the capital city, now called Petrograd by the Tsarist regime, which thought the name St. Petersburg sounded excessively German.[5] Molotov became a member of the Bolshevik Party's committee in Petrograd in 1916. When the February Revolution occurred in 1917, he was one of the few Bolsheviks of any standing in the capital. Under his direction Pravda took to the "left" to oppose the Provisional Government formed after the revolution. When Joseph Stalin returned to the capital, he reversed Molotov's line;[6] but when the party leader Lenin arrived, he overruled Stalin. Despite this, Molotov became a protégé of and close adherent to Stalin, an alliance to which he owed his later prominence.[7] Molotov became a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee which planned the October Revolution, which effectively brought the Bolsheviks to power.[8] Molotov and the OGPU's first chief Felix Dzerzhinsky, 1924 In 1918, Molotov was sent to Ukraine to take part in the civil war then breaking out. Since he was not a military man, he took no part in the fighting. In 1920, he became secretary to the Central Committee of the Ukrainian Bolshevik Party. Lenin recalled him to Moscow in 1921, elevating him to full membership of the Central Committee and Orgburo, and putting him in charge of the party secretariat. He was voted in as a non-voting member of the Politburo in 1921 and held the office of Responsible Secretary and also married the Soviet politician Polina Zhemchuzhina. His Responsible Secretaryship was criticised by Lenin and Leon Trotsky, with Lenin noting his "shameful bureaucratism" and stupid behaviour.[3] On the advice of Molotov and Nikolai Bukharin, the Central Committee decided to reduce Lenin's work hours.[9] In 1922, Stalin became General Secretary of the Bolshevik Party with Molotov as the de facto Second Secretary. As a young follower, Molotov admired Stalin but did not refrain from criticizing him.[10] Under Stalin's patronage, Molotov became a member of the Politburo in 1926.[7] Molotov speaks at the meeting of peasant women, 1925 During the power struggles which followed Lenin's death in 1924, Molotov remained a loyal supporter of Stalin against his various rivals: first Leon Trotsky, later Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev, and finally Nikolai Bukharin. Molotov became a leading figure in the "Stalinist centre" of the party, which also included Kliment Voroshilov and Sergo Ordzhonikidze.[11] Trotsky and his supporters underestimated Molotov, as did many others. Trotsky called him "mediocrity personified", whilst Molotov himself pedantically corrected comrades referring to him as 'Stone Arse' by saying that Lenin had actually dubbed him 'Iron Arse'.[3] However, this outward dullness concealed a sharp mind and great administrative talent. He operated mainly behind the scenes and cultivated an image of a colourless bureaucrat – for example, he was the only Bolshevik leader who always wore a suit and tie.[12] In 1928, Molotov replaced Nikolai Uglanov as First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party and held that position until 15 August 1929.[13] In a lengthy address to the Central Committee in 1929, Molotov told the members the Soviet government would initiate a compulsory collectivisation campaign to solve the agrarian backwardness of Soviet agriculture.[14] Premiership (1930–1941) Molotov as premier. During the Central Committee plenum of 19 December 1930, Molotov succeeded Alexey Rykov as the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (the equivalent of a Western head of government).[15] In this post, Molotov oversaw agricultural collectivisation under Stalin's regime. He followed Stalin's line by using a combination of force and propaganda to crush peasant resistance to collectivisation, including the deportation of millions of kulaks (peasants with property) to gulags. An enormous number of the deportees died from exposure and overwork.[16] He signed the Law of Spikelets[17] and personally led the Extraordinary Commission for Grain Delivery in Ukraine,[18] which seized a reported 4.2 million tonnes of grain from the peasants during a widespread manmade famine (later known as the "Holodomor" to Ukrainians).[17]Contemporary historians estimate that between seven and eleven million people died, either of starvation or in gulags,[17]in the process of farm collectivization. Molotov also oversaw the implementation of the First Five-Year Plan for rapid industrialisation.[19] Kliment Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, Alexander Kosarev and Vyacheslav Molotov at the 7th Conference of the All-Union Leninist Young Communist League (Komsomol). July 1932. Sergei Kirov, head of the Party organisation in Leningrad, was killed in 1934;[20] some believed Stalin ordered his death. Evidence that supports Stalin's involvement and evidence that does not is set out in J. Holroyd-Doveton's biography of Maxim Litvinov.[21] Following Kirov's murder, the next significant although unpublicised event was Stalin's apparent rift with Molotov.[22] On 19 March 1936 Molotov gave an interview with the editor of Le Temps concerning improved relations with Nazi Germany.[23] Although Litvinov had made similar statements in 1934, and even visited Berlin that year, this was before Germany's occupation of the Rhineland.[22] Watson believes Molotov's statement on foreign policy gave offense to Stalin. Molotov had made it clear that improved relations with Hitler's Germany could develop only if Germany's policy changed. Molotov then stated that one of the best ways for Germany to improve relations was by re-joining the League of Nations, but even that was not sufficient. Germany still had to give proof 'of its respect for international obligations in keeping with the real interests of peace in Europe and peace generally'.[24] As Litvinov during 1933 and 1934 had done his best to prevent the cordial relations created by Rapallo from declining, some do not think Litvinov would have disapproved of that statement; and if German policy had changed, Litvinov would have been delighted. However, Robert Conquest, unlike Watson, believed that the reason for Stalin's temporary rift with Molotov was not concerned with foreign policy but stemmed from the fact that Stalin was incensed with Molotov for attempting to try and dissuade Stalin from staging the famous trials against the old colleagues of Lenin.[25] Molotov, in the same interview, denied the continued existence of internal enemies except for a few isolated cases. Holroyd-Doveton thinks this is more likely to have given offense to Stalin.[22] Watson, Orlov, and Conquest believe that there was a rift between Molotov and Stalin because Molotov's name was omitted from the list of those whom the conspirators were planning to kill, while all other prominent leaders were included. Then, in May 1936, Molotov went to the Black Sea on an extended holiday under careful NKVD supervision until the end of August, when apparently Stalin changed his mind and ordered Molotov's return.[26] Kirov's death triggered a second crisis, the Great Purge.[27] In 1938, out of the 28 People's Commissars in Molotov's Government, 20 were executed on the orders of Molotov and Stalin.[28] The purges were carried out by Stalin's successive police chiefs;[29] Nikolai Yezhov was the chief organiser, and Kliment Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, and Molotov were intimately involved in the processes.[30] Stalin frequently required Molotov and other Politburo members to sign the death warrants of prominent purge victims, and Molotov always did so without question.[31] There is no record of Molotov attempting to moderate the course of the purges or even to save individuals, as some other Soviet officials did. During the Great Purge, he approved 372 documented execution lists, more than any other Soviet official, including Stalin. Molotov was one of the few with whom Stalin openly discussed the purges.[32] Although Molotov and Stalin signed a public decree in 1938 that disassociated them from the ongoing Great Purge,[33] in private, and even after Stalin's death, Molotov supported the Great Purge and the executions carried out by his government.[34] Despite the great human cost,[35] the Soviet Union under Molotov's nominal premiership made great strides in the adoption and widespread implementation of agrarian and industrial technology. The rise of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany precipitated the development of a modern armaments industry on the orders of the Soviet government.[36] Ultimately, it was this arms industry, along with American Lend-Lease aid, which helped the Soviet Union prevail in World War II.[37] Vyacheslav Molotov (Skryabin), Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (Prime Minister) and Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1932. Both signed mass execution lists (Album procedure): Molotov signed 373 lists and Stalin signed 362 lists. Set against this, the purges of the Red Army leadership, in which Molotov participated, weakened the Soviet Union's defence capacity and contributed to the military disasters of 1941 and 1942, which were mostly caused by unreadiness for war.[38] The purges also led to the dismantling of privatised agriculture and its replacement by collectivised agriculture. This left a legacy of chronic agricultural inefficiencies and under-production which the Soviet regime never fully rectified.[39] Molotov was reported to be a vegetarian and teetotaler by American journalist John Gunther in 1938.[40] However, Milovan Djilas claimed that Molotov "drank more than Stalin"[41] and did not note his vegetarianism despite attending several banquets with him. Minister of Foreign Affairs (1939–1949) In 1939, following the 1938 Munich Agreement and Hitler's subsequent invasion of Czechoslovakia, Stalin believed that Britain and France would not be reliable allies against German expansion so he instead sought to conciliate Nazi Germany.[42] In May 1939, Maxim Litvinov, the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, was dismissed; it is not certain why Litvinov was dismissed but it was discussed in Ch. 14 of J. Holroyd-Doveton's biography of Maxim Litvinov.[43] Molotov was appointed to succeed him.[44] Relations between Molotov and Litvinov had been bad,[45] which is corroborated by a number of sources. Maurice Hindus, in 1954, was perhaps the first person outside the Soviet Union to understand this hostility. In his book Crisis in the Kremlin, he states: It is well known in Moscow that Molotov always detested Litvinov. Molotov's detestation for Litvinov was purely of a personal nature. No Moscovite I have ever known, whether a friend of Molotov or of Litvinov, has ever taken exception to this view. Molotov was always resentful of Litvinov's fluency in French, German and English, as he was distrustful of Litvinov's easy manner with foreigners. Never having lived abroad, Molotov always suspected that there was something impure and sinful in Litvinov's broad mindedness and appreciation of Western civilisation.[46] Although Litvinov never mentioned his relationship with Molotov in the foreign commissariat, Narkomindel press officer Genedin states: even though Litvinov never referred to their relationship (between Litvinov and Molotov) it was nevertheless well known it was bad. Litvinov had no respect for a small minded intriguer and accomplice in terror like Molotov, and Molotov for his part had no love for Litvinov, who incidentally was the one people's commissioner to retain his independence.[47] A list from the Great Purge signed by Molotov, Stalin, Voroshilov, Kaganovich and Zhdanov Molotov was succeeded in his post as Premier by Stalin.[48] At first, Hitler rebuffed Soviet diplomatic hints that Stalin desired a treaty; but in early August 1939, Hitler authorised Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop to begin serious negotiations. A trade agreement was concluded on 18 August; and on 22 August, Ribbentrop flew to Moscow to conclude a formal non-aggression treaty. Although the treaty is known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, it was Stalin and Hitler, and not Molotov and Ribbentrop, who decided the content of the treaty. The most important part of the agreement was the secret protocol, which provided for the partition of Poland, Finland, and the Baltic States between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union and for the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia (then part of Romania, now Moldova).[44] This protocol gave Hitler the green light for his invasion of Poland, which began on 1 September.[49] On 5 March 1940, Lavrentiy Beria gave Molotov, along with Anastas Mikoyan, Kliment Voroshilov and Stalin, a note proposing the execution of 25,700 Polish officers and anti-Soviets, in what has become known as the Katyn massacre.[48] Under the Pact's terms, Hitler was, in effect, given authorisation to occupy two-thirds of Western Poland, as well as Lithuania. Molotov was given a free hand in relation to Finland. In the Winter War that ensued, a combination of fierce Finnish resistance and Soviet mismanagement resulted in Finland losing parts of its territory, but not its independence.[50] The Pact was later amended to allocate Lithuania to the Soviet sphere in exchange for a more favourable border in Poland. These annexations led to horrific suffering and loss of life in the countries occupied and partitioned by the two dictatorships.[51] In November 1940, Stalin sent Molotov to Berlin to meet Ribbentrop and Adolf Hitler. In January 1941, the British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden visited Turkey in an attempt to get the Turks to enter the war on the Allies' side. Though the purpose of Eden's visit was anti-German rather than anti-Soviet, Molotov assumed otherwise, and in a series of conversations with the Italian Ambassador Augusto Rosso, Molotov claimed that the Soviet Union would soon be faced with an Anglo–Turkish invasion of the Crimea. The British historian D.C. Watt argued that, on the basis of Molotov's statements to Rosso, it would appear that, in early 1941, Stalin and Molotov viewed Britain rather than Germany as the principal threat.[52] Molotov meets with Joachim von Ribbentrop before signing the German–Soviet non-aggression pact The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact governed Soviet–German relations until June 1941 when Hitler, having occupied France and neutralised Britain, turned east and attacked the Soviet Union.[53] Molotov was responsible for telling the Soviet people of the attack, when he instead of Stalin announced the war. His speech, broadcast by radio on 22 June, characterised the Soviet Union in a role similar to that articulated for Britain by Winston Churchill in his early wartime speeches.[54] The State Defence Committee was established soon after Molotov's speech; Stalin was elected chairman and Molotov was elected deputy chairman.[55] Following the German invasion, Molotov conducted urgent negotiations with Britain and, later, the United States for wartime alliances. He took a secret flight to Glasgow, Scotland, where he was greeted by Eden. This risky flight, in a high altitude Tupolev TB-7 bomber, flew over German-occupied Denmark and the North Sea. From there, he took a train to London to discuss with the British government the possibility of opening a second front against Germany. After signing the Anglo–Soviet Treaty of 1942 on 26 May, Molotov left for Washington, D.C., in the United States. Molotov met with Franklin D. Roosevelt, the President of the United States, and ratified a Lend-Lease Treaty between the USSR and the US. Both the British and the United States government, albeit vaguely, promised to open up a second front against Germany. On his flight back to the USSR his plane was attacked by German fighters, and then later by Soviet fighters.[56] Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference in 1943; Molotov and Anthony Eden are standing in the background. When Beria told Stalin about the Manhattan Project and its importance, Stalin handpicked Molotov to be the man in charge of the Soviet atomic bomb project. However, under Molotov's leadership the bomb, and the project itself, developed very slowly, and Molotov was replaced by Beria in 1944 on the advice of Igor Kurchatov.[57] When Harry S. Truman, the American president, told Stalin that the Americans had created a bomb never seen before, Stalin relayed the conversation to Molotov and told him to speed up development. On Stalin's orders, the Soviet government substantially increased investment in the project.[58][59] In a collaboration with Kliment Voroshilov, Molotov contributed both musically and lyrically to the 1944 version of the Soviet national anthem. Molotov asked the writers to include a line or two about peace. Molotov's and Voroshilov's role in the making of the new Soviet anthem was, in the words of historian Simon Sebag-Montefiore, acting as music judges for Stalin.[60] Molotov accompanied Stalin to the Teheran Conference in 1943,[61] the Yalta Conference in 1945,[62] and, following the defeat of Germany, the Potsdam Conference.[63] He represented the Soviet Union at the San Francisco Conference, which created the United Nations.[64] Even during the period of wartime alliance, Molotov was known as a tough negotiator and a determined defender of Soviet interests. Molotov lost his position of First Deputy chairman on 19 March 1946, after the Council of People's Commissars was reformed as the Council of Ministers. Stalin, Harry S. Truman, Andrei Gromyko, James F. Byrnes and Molotov meeting at the Potsdam Conference on 18 July 1945 From 1945 to 1947, Molotov took part in all four conferences of foreign ministers of the victorious states in World War II. In general, he was distinguished by an uncooperative attitude towards the Western powers. Molotov, at the direction of the Soviet government, condemned the Marshall Plan as imperialistic and claimed it was dividing Europe into two camps, one capitalist and the other communist. In response, the Soviet Union, along with the other Eastern Bloc nations, initiated what is known as the Molotov Plan. The plan created several bilateral relations between the states of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union; and later evolved into the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).[65] In the postwar period, Molotov's power began to decline. A clear sign of his precarious position was his inability to prevent the arrest for "treason", in December 1948, of his Jewish wife, Polina Zhemchuzhina, whom Stalin had long distrusted.[66] Molotov never stopped loving his wife, and it is said he ordered his maids to make dinner for two every evening to remind him that, in his own words, "she suffered because of me".[67] Polina Zhemchuzhina befriended Golda Meir, who arrived in Moscow in November 1948 as the first Israeli envoy to the USSR.[68] According to a close collaborator of Molotov, Vladimir Ivanovich Yerofeyev,[69] Meir met privately with Polina, who had been her schoolmate in St. Petersburg. Immediately afterwards, Polina was arrested and accused of ties with Zionist organisations. She was imprisoned for a year in the Lubyanka, after which she was exiled for three years in an obscure Russian city. Molotov had no communication with her, save for the scant news that he got from Beria, whom he loathed. Polina was freed immediately after the death of Stalin.[70] According to Erofeev, Molotov said of her: "She's not only beautiful and intelligent, the only woman minister in the Soviet Union; she's also a real Bolshevik, a real Soviet person." Molotov with his wife Polina However, Molotov now, according to Stalin's daughter, became very subservient to his wife.[71] Molotov yessed his wife in the same way he had previously yessed Stalin.[72] In 1949, Molotov was replaced as Foreign Minister by Andrey Vyshinsky, although retaining his position as First Deputy Premier and membership in the Politburo.[67] Potsdam Conference: Clement Attlee, Ernest Bevin, Molotov, Joseph Stalin, William Daniel Leahy, James F. Byrnes, Harry S. Truman and others. Post-war career (1949–1962) At the 19th Party Congress in 1952, Molotov was elected to the replacement for the Politburo, the Presidium, but was not listed among the members of the newly established secret body known as the Bureau of the Presidium; indicating that he had fallen out of Stalin's favour.[73] At the 19th Congress, Molotov and Anastas Mikoyan were said by Stalin to have committed grave mistakes, including the publication of a wartime speech by Winston Churchill favourable to the Soviet Union's wartime efforts.[74] Both Molotov and Mikoyan were falling out of favour rapidly, with Stalin telling Beria, Khrushchev, Malenkov and Nikolai Bulganin that he did not want to see Molotov and Mikoyan around anymore. At his 73rd birthday, Stalin treated both with disgust.[75] In his speech to the 20th Party Congress in 1956, Khrushchev told delegates that Stalin had plans for "finishing off" Molotov and Mikoyan in the aftermath of the 19th Congress.[76] Molotov with French Foreign Minister Antoine Pinay at the Geneva Summit of 1955 Following Stalin's death, a realignment of the leadership strengthened Molotov's position. Georgy Malenkov, Stalin's successor in the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, reappointed Molotov as Minister of Foreign Affairs on 5 March 1953.[77] Although Molotov was seen as a likely successor to Stalin in the immediate aftermath of his death, he never sought to become leader of the Soviet Union.[78] A Troika was established immediately after Stalin's death, consisting of Malenkov, Beria, and Molotov,[79] but ended when Malenkov and Molotov deceived Beria.[80] Molotov supported the removal and later the execution of Beria on the orders of Khrushchev.[81] The new Party Secretary, Khrushchev, soon emerged as the new leader of the Soviet Union. He presided over a gradual domestic liberalisation and a thaw in foreign policy, as was manifest in a reconciliation with Josip Broz Tito's government in Yugoslavia, which Stalin had expelled from the communist movement. Molotov, an old-guard Stalinist, seemed increasingly out of place in the new environment,[82] but he represented the Soviet Union at the Geneva Conference of 1955.[83] Molotov's position became increasingly tenuous after February 1956, when Khrushchev launched an unexpected denunciation of Stalin at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party. Khrushchev attacked Stalin both over the purges of the 1930s and the defeats of the early years of World War II, which he blamed on Stalin's overly trusting attitude towards Hitler and his purges of the Red Army command structure. As Molotov was the most senior of Stalin's collaborators still in government and had played a leading role in the purges, it became evident that Khrushchev's examination of the past would probably result in Molotov's fall from power, and he became the leader of an old guard faction that sought to overthrow Khrushchev.[84] Molotov (far left) with Khrushchev (second from right) and Premier Nikolai Bulganin (to the left of Khrushchev) in 1955 at a gala reception in Moscow for the visit of West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (centre) In June 1956, Molotov was removed as Foreign Minister;[85] on 29 June 1957, he was expelled from the Presidium (Politburo) after a failed attempt to remove Khrushchev as First Secretary. Although Molotov's faction initially won a vote in the Presidium, 7–4, to remove Khrushchev, the latter refused to resign unless a Central Committee plenum decided so.[86] In the plenum, which met from 22 to 29 June, Molotov and his faction were defeated.[84] Eventually he was banished, being made ambassador to the Mongolian People's Republic.[86] Molotov and his associates were denounced as "the Anti-Party Group" but, notably, were not subject to such unpleasant repercussions as had been customary for denounced officials in the Stalin years. In 1960, he was appointed Soviet representative to the International Atomic Energy Agency, which was seen as a partial rehabilitation.[87] However, after the 22nd Party Congress in 1961, during which Khrushchev carried out his de-Stalinisation campaign, including the removal of Stalin's body from Lenin's Mausoleum, Molotov (along with Lazar Kaganovich) was removed from all positions and expelled from the Communist Party.[73] In 1962, all of Molotov's party documents and files were destroyed by the authorities.[88] In retirement, Molotov remained unrepentant about his role under Stalin's rule.[89] He suffered a heart attack in January 1962. After the Sino-Soviet split, it was reported that he agreed with the criticisms made by Mao Zedong of the supposed "revisionism" of Khrushchev's policies. According to Roy Medvedev, Stalin's daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva recalled Molotov's wife telling her: "Your father was a genius. There's no revolutionary spirit around nowadays, just opportunism everywhere"[90] and "China's our only hope. Only they have kept alive the revolutionary spirit".[91] Later years and death (1962–1986) Vyacheslav Molotov on the cover of Time, 20 April 1953 In 1968, United Press International reported that Molotov had completed his memoirs, but that they would likely never be published.[92] The first signs of Molotov's rehabilitation were seen during Leonid Brezhnev's rule, when information about him was again allowed to be included in Soviet encyclopedias. His connection, support and work in the Anti-Party Group were mentioned in encyclopedias published in 1973 and 1974, but eventually disappeared altogether by the mid-to-late-1970s. Later, Soviet leader Konstantin Chernenko further rehabilitated Molotov;[93] in 1984, Molotov was even allowed to seek membership in the Communist Party.[94] A collection of interviews with Molotov from 1985 was published in 1994 by Felix Chuev as Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics. In June 1986, Molotov was hospitalized in Kuntsevo Hospital in Moscow, where he eventually died, during the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev, on 8 November 1986.[95][96] During his life, Molotov suffered seven heart attacks, yet survived to the age of 96. At the time of his death, he was the last surviving major participant in the events of 1917. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.[89] Legacy Molotov, like Stalin, was pathologically mistrustful of others, and because of it, much crucial information disappeared. As Molotov once said, "One should listen to them, but it is necessary to check up on them. The intelligence officer can lead you to a very dangerous position... There are many provocateurs here, there, and everywhere."[97] Molotov continued to claim, in a series of published interviews, that there never was a secret territorial deal between Stalin and Hitler during the Nazi–Soviet Pact.[98] Like Stalin, he never recognised the Cold War as an international event. He saw the Cold War as, more or less, the everyday conflict between communism and capitalism. He divided the capitalist countries into two groups, the "smart and dangerous imperialists" and the "fools".[99] Before his retirement, Molotov proposed establishing a socialist confederation with the People's Republic of China (PRC); Molotov believed socialist states were part of a bigger, supranational entity.[100] In retirement, Molotov criticised Nikita Khrushchev for being a "right-wing deviationist".[101] The Molotov cocktail is a term coined by the Finns during the Winter War, as a generic name used for a variety of improvised incendiary weapons.[102] During the Winter War, the Soviet air force made extensive use of incendiaries and cluster bombs against Finnish troops and fortifications. When Molotov claimed in radio broadcasts that they were not bombing, but rather delivering food to the starving Finns, the Finns started to call the air bombs Molotov bread baskets.[103] Soon they responded by attacking advancing tanks with "Molotov cocktails," which were "a drink to go with the food." According to Montefiore, the Molotov cocktail was one part of Molotov's cult of personality that the vain Premier surely did not appreciate.[104] Winston Churchill in his wartime memoirs lists many meetings with Molotov. Acknowledging him as a "man of outstanding ability and cold-blooded ruthlessness", Churchill concluded: "In the conduct of foreign affairs, Mazarin, Talleyrand, Metternich, would welcome him to their company, if there be another world to which Bolsheviks allow themselves to go."[105] At the end of 1989, two years before the final collapse of the Soviet Union, the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union and Mikhail Gorbachev's government formally denounced the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[106] In January 2010, a Ukrainian court accused Molotov and other Soviet officials of organizing a man-made famine in Ukraine in 1932–33. The same Court then ended criminal proceedings against them, as the trial would be posthumous.[107] Portrayals in media Michael Palin was cast as Molotov in the 2017 satire The Death of Stalin. Decorations and awards This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. 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When Josef Stalin came to power in the USSR in the late 1920s, he had already eliminated opposition to his dictatorship. Throughout his rule, he continued purging the party of any challenges to his power. Vyacheslav Molotov was one of the very few who survived these megalomaniac purges and occupied important positions in the USSR leadership throughout Stalin's dictatorship. Despite his ubiquitous presence, historians have had difficulty determining his political influence. Stalin's successor Nikita .Khrushchev exiled Molotov from the party during his de-Stalinization campaign and publicly renounced the roles of party members during the terrors of the 1930s, shifting responsibility to Stalin individually. Due mainly to the effectiveness of Khrushchev's de-Stalinization, Molotov has become known as Stalin's subservient follower, "the Kremlin's brilliant mediocrity"1 and "no more than Stalin's faithful servant."2 However, a careful analysis of sources indicates that he may have been . significantly more of an "independent actor" than is generally assumed. 3 The 1963 Shvemik Report, a government report detailing the repressions of the 1930s, mentions Molotov as Stalin's second- in-command and a responsible force behind the Purges.4Thisreport, written towards the end of Khrushchev's time in power, evidences the discrepancy between Khrushchev's public proclamations, which blame the repressions primarily on Stalin, and the party's unpublished records. In his interviews with the Soviet historian Felix Chuev between 1969 and 1985, Molotov also speaks of his roles in Stalin's policies.5 These interviews, however biased they may be, provide invaluable insight into Molotov's own perception of his power and help to validate claims made by other authors, many of whom, writing after the Soviet archives opened in 1991, use information that the Soviet government had concealed. The essay draws on a variety of sources including numerous biographies of Molotov ranging in publication dates from 1941 to present. As this essay contradicts the conventional view of Molotov as merely Stalin’s loyal follower, it draws especially on Molotov’s own words in his speeches to the USSR, his correspondence with Stalin and his interviews with the Soviet historian Felix Chuev 1 C. L. Sulzbergergeneva, "The Kremlin's Brilliant Mediocrity," The New York Times, June 6, 1954 accessed November 8, 2013http://select.nytimes.com/gstlabstract.html?res=FAOC15F63E5E107B93C4A9178DD85F40858F9, quoted in Geoffrey Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, ed. Melvyn P. Leffler (Dulles, VA, USA: Potomac Books, 2012), 1. 2 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 1. 3 E. A. Rees, "Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior," The Historian 75, no. 2 (Summer 2013). 4 N. Shvernik et al., Report of the Commission of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on the Results of Investigation of the Reasons of Political Repressions and Circumstances Surrounding Politically Motivated Criminal Investigations of the 1930s, trans. Veronika Rundbaken, February 18, 1963, Russian State Archive of Archive of Contemporary History, accessed November 8, 2013, http://www.mat.univie.ac.atl-neretinl1937/shvernik. http://www.mat.univie.ac.atl-neretinl 1937/shvernik. 5 Vyacheslav M. Molotov, interview by Felix Chuev, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics. Conversations with Felix Chuev, by Felix Chuev, ed. Albert Resis (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993). 3 Extended essay History sample A This essay pinpoints events of the 1930s in which Molotov was especially influential. He played a managerial role in both forced collectivization and the 1937 Purges. Elevated in 1939 to the post of Foreign Minster, he was crucial in the negotiation of the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Additionally, Molotov may have been the only member of Stalin's administration with the freedom to voice · his opinion to his leader. Molotov was certainly "the most devoted of [Stalin's] subordinates,"6 but may not have been purely subordinate. Through examination of Molotov's role in Stalin's domestic and foreign policies, as_well as the personal relationship between Stalin and Molotov, we begin to recognize his influence behind many of Stalin's most critical decisions and their execution. This interpretation necessitates a reassessment of our perception of Stalin asthe single engineer of the repressions of the 1930s. This revisionist view prompts the question that will be discussed in this essay: to what extent was Molotov a driving force behind Stalin's domestic and foreign policies in the1930s? 1: Molotov's Rise to Prominence Born on March 9, 1890, 7 Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Scriabin joined the Russian Social Democratic and Labor Party in 1906,8 changing his name to Molotov ('hammer') in 1914.9 He met Stalin in 1912 in St Petersburg while working for the revolutionary newspaper Pravda, at which he. was the editor until Stalin took his post in 1917. 10 Inearly 1917, when both Lenin and Stalin were in exile and the Tsar's power was crumbling, Molotov and one other, Shlyapnikov, led the Bolshevik Party in Petrograd in what became the February Revolution. 11 He was influential in the Petrograd Committee of the Bolshevik Party, "probably [spearheading] the fight for the adoption of Lenin's course" after the revolution. 12 As a member of the Military 6 Donald Rayfield, Stalin and his Hangmen (London: Penguin Books, 2005), 39. 7 William Peyton Cotes and Zelda Kahan Coates, "A Biographical Sketch of V. M. Molotov," in Soviet Peace Policy by V. M. Molotov, by V. M. Molotov (London: Lawrence and Wishart (for the Anglo-Russian News Bulletin), 1941), accessed August 15,2013, http://www.marxists.org/archive/molotov/biography.htm. 8 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Wanior, 5. 9 "Vyacheslav Molotov," WWII: Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West, accessed August 19, 2013, http://www.pbs.org/behi ndcloseddoors/biographi es/molotov.htmL 10 Janet Caulkins, Joseph Stalin (New York: Franklin Watts, 1990), 42. 11 Simon Sebag Montefiore, Young Stalin (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 308. 12Alexander Rabinowitch, TheBolsheviks Come to Power: The Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd (London: Haymru:ket Books and Pluto Press, 2004), 60. 4 Extended essay History sample A 3 Revolutionary Committee he participated in planning the October Revolution. 13 He was not elected to the Central Committee but.was involved in the party's administration. 14 Other party members, especially Trotsky, mocked Molotov for his apparent stupidity, 15 giving him the Rickname "iron ass" for his dullness and his unrelenting capacity for work. 16 Despite this, Molotov was prominent in Lenin's administration, refuting the theory that he rose to prominence only during Stalin's attempt to fill government organizations with his allies.17 Although Stalin's consolidation of power was not the only cause of Molotov's ascent, it brought him, along with others, quickly to the forefront.18 By 1926 Molotov was a full member of the Mitburo, the Central Committee and the Executive Committee 9f Comintem. In 1930 he became Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (Premier), the second most important position in the Soviet administration. 19 Molotov's theoretical knowledge was similar to Stalin's, giving the dictator reason to trust him. If anything, Molotov was even more of a theoretician than Stalin, as can be seen by his adherence to policy. While Stalin altered his policies to exclude opposition in his consolidation of power, Molotov remained rooted in his doctrinal interpretation of communism. He was not, for example, part of Stalin's triumvirate to exclude Trotsky from the party. Those who believe Molotov merited his power see his ascent to prominence as the "logical consequence" for his achievements before and after the revolution.20 Among the many pragmatic actors, Molotov's dogmatic com111itment to theory and his loyalty to the party helped him attain and retain high offices. 13 "Vyacheslav Molotov," Spartacus Educational, accessed November 10,2013, http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RUSmolotov. htm. 14 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 9. 15 Simon Sebag Montefiore, "Russia's Street of Secrets: Molotov's Magic Lantern: A Journey in Russian History by Rachel.Polansky," The Evening Standard (London), March 4, 2010. 16 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 10. 17 Brian Mimmack, Daniela Senes, and Eunice Price, "Josef Stalin and the USSR," in History 20th Century World: Authoritarian and Single-Party States (Harlow, England: Pearson Education, 2010), 106. 18 David Evans and Jane Jenkins, Years of Russia, the USSR, and the Collapse of Soviet Communism, 2nd ed. (London: Hodder Education, 2008), 267. 19 MichaelLynch, Origins and Development of Authoritarian and Single-Party States (London: Hodder Education, 2013), 30. 20 Coates and Coates, "A Biographical Sketch of V. M. Molotov," in Soviet Peace Policy by V. M. Molotov. 5 Extended essay History sample A 5 2: Molotov' s Role in Forced Collectivization 2.1 : The Theory of Collectivization Molotov's first major role in the 1930s was in overseeing collectivization and de-Kulakization. He was instrumental in arresting kula"ks (wealthy peasants) to be killed or sent to labor camps, requisitioning grain from starving peasants, and forcing millions to give up their individual farms and join collectives. The goal of collectivization was to achieve ''utopia" in the countryside, which, it was argued, could not be achieved without loss.21 Molotov believed that forcing the peasants to join collectives was necessary in building a communist state and, ultimately, eradicating capitalism,22 a belief that Stalin shared. Stalin wrote to Molotov that, "ifwe can beat this grain thing, then we'll prevail in everything."23 The party came to the conclusion that, · whether through humane or inhumane methods, grain had to be requisitioned and communism achieved in the countryside by removing those peasants deemed to be unjustly wealthy.24 Molotov was vocal alongside Stalin in advocating the formation of collective farms and the removal of kula"ks. He urged harsh controls for the kula"ks and supported large-scale collectivization at the 1927 Party Congress,45 seconding Stalin's collectivization plans.26 Even as late as 1938 Molotov advocated collectivization, 27 when the massive social experiment had already proven to be a failure. This demonstrates Molotov's adherence to ideology even when Stalin shifted his focus. While Stalin wavered on the corre9t implementation and severity of collectivization, slowing it down in 1930 due to the famine as shown in his "Dizzy with Success" article,28Molotov does not indicate ever having changed his opinion. In interviews with Chuev 21 Martin McCauley, The Soviet Union 1917-1991, 2nd ed., Longman History of Russia (Harlow, England: Pearson Education, 1993), 80. 22 Moltov, interview, inMolotov Remembers: InsideKremlin Politics, 253. 23 Josef V. Stalin, Stalin's Letters to Molotov, ed. Robert C. Tucker, et al., trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New Haven, USA: Yale University Press, 1995), 175. 24 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 246. 25 Peter Oxley, Russia 1855-1991: From Tsars to Commissars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 160. 26 Coates and Coates, "A Biographical Sketch of V. M. Molotov," in Soviet Peace Policy by V. M. Molotov. 27 Vyacheslav M. Molotov, "Speech at the Session of the Supreme Council of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics," lntematioal Press Correspondence (lnprecor) 18, no. 3 (January 22, 1938): accessed November 10, 2013, http:/Jwww.marxists.org/archive/molotov/1938 1stalin-speech. htm. 28 Josef V. Stalin, ."Dizzy with Success: Concerning Questions of the Collective-Farm Movement," Pravda (Moscow, USSR}, March 2, 1930, accessed August 15, 2013, http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1930/03/02. htm. 6 Extended essay History sample A 7 he shows a firm conviction that collective farms were the best and only path to a communist future.29 Molotov was hugely important in the development of the theory as well as in the execution of collectivization and, unlike Stalin, did not let its failure move him from the course of events he perceived as correct. 2.2 : Molotov's Authority It is unclear under exactly which conditions Molotov became responsible for collectivization, but even many historians reluctant to admit to his powerful influence indicate that "Molotov planned the destruction of the kulaks."30 Molotov agreed to this role with a disturbing amount of pride. "I personally designated districts where kulaks were to be removed ... We exiled 400,000 kulaks. My commission did itsjob. "31Molotov was responsible for overseeing grain requisitioning in the Ukraine, where the famine was the worst.32He maintained written correspondence with Stalin during his trips to the Ukraine and Stalin's trips throughout Russia. Some of Stalin's letters have been published and evidence the development of his plans for collectivization in part through written communication with Molotov.33 Interestingly, Molotov claimsthere was never a time in which both he and Stalin were out of Moscow; when Stalin was away, Molotov remained in the Kremlin.34 In his interviews with Chuev, Molotov does not exhibit knowledge that this trust was extremely rare, even unparalleled, under Stalin's dictatorial power. Stalin delegated to him directly, telling him .in one instance to "[force] up the export of grain to the maximum. "35 Molotov certainly carried out this order; the famine in the Ukraine reached appalling levels during forced collectivization. Molotov exemplifies Stalin's policy of unquestioning discipline by describing that, in collectivization, "hands must not tremble, you must not quake in your boots."36 In statements like these we can see his loyalty to communist theory. As much as historians downplay 29 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 243. 30 Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar(London: Phoenix, 2004), 47. 31 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 248. 32 Mimmack, Senes, and Price, "Josef Stalin and the USSR," in History 20th Century World, 111. 33 Stalin, Stalin's Letters to Molotov, 165. 34 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 242. 35 Rachel Polonsky, Molotov's Magic Lantern: Discovering Russia's Secret History (London: Faber and Faber, 2010), 211. 36 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 243. 7 Extended essay History sample A 9 Molotov's importance in Stalin's government, they frequently mention collectivization as "Stalin and Molotov's plan," implying a kind of collaboration.37 From Molotov's comments to Chuev and his correspondence with Stalin it appears that Molotov co-designed forced collectivization and was zealous in its execution. 3: Molotov' s Role in the 1937 Purges 3.1 : Ideology of the Purges After the failed experiment of collectivization, Stalin, and with him Molotov, turned his attention to the elimination of "Enemies of the State" and engineered Purges to exile and kill millions of Russian civilians, primarily under the quota system that designated anonymous numbers of people to be arrested. The ideological basis for the Purges was that, in order to create the golden utpia to which the party strived, all dross had to be discarded. The government became increasingly distrustful and controlling after the Civil War of 1918-1921 and the awareness that not all citizens were loyal to the party.38 Molotov, like Stalin, was not actively involved in the Civil War, but observed the communist state falling into chaos soon after its creation. This gave rise to the mentality that, by cleansing the country of dissent, such chaos could be avoided in the future. Molotov justified the Purges by reasoning that the USSR would have sustained even heavier losses in World War II if opposition had not been eliminated earlier.39 Though this may be true, the Purges decimated Russia's military forces to the point that the 1939 campaign against Finland was not easilywon and demonstrated the Red Army's weakness. 8 Extended essay History sample A 1 0 Additional distrust may have come from Sergey Kirov's murder in 1934, often seen as the catalyst of the 1937 Purges. Leonid NikoJaev, charged with assassinating Kirov, was also accused of plans to murder Stalin, Molotov and Kaganovich; whether or not Kirov's assassination was a conspiracy, this indicates Molotov's importance at the time.40 IfKirov was assassinated by enemies of the party, then Molotov's contemporaries must have recognized his dangerous power. Ifthe assassination was part of a conspiracy, possibly led by Stalin himself, 37 Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, 47. 38 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 8. 39 Anthony D'Agostino, The Russian Revolution 1917-1945 (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2011), 137. 40 McCauley, The Soviet Union 1917-1991, 102. 9 Extended essay History sample A 7 , the inclusion of Molotov in the list of targets demonstrates his value to his leader. No matter how Kirov's murder is interpreted, Molotov's inclusion as a target is of doubtless importance as an explanation of the suspicion that led to his role in the Purges. 3.2: Molotov's Role The Shvernik Report names Molotov, like Stalin, "personally responsible for the organization and execution of groundless mass political repressions."41 More recent sources also indicate his highly important role. He signed 373 quota lists in 1937and 1938,eleven more than Stalin.42 Itis unlikely that he only followed Stalin's orders and signed anything laid before him, as some historians suggest. Although Molotov acknowledged that he followed Stalin's orders, he saw the repressions as necessary and congruent with his ideology.43 By this point, Molotov had such power in Soviet leadership that his signature was required alongside Stalin's; Stalin signed for the Party, Molotov for the government. 44 This suggests a terrible double act, with each man supporting the other in mass murder. The NKVD, the secret police force responsible for conducting the Purges, received approval from Stalin and Molotov together.45 This demonstrates that Stalin shared some of his authority with Molotov and that Molotov was a co-pilot of the Purges. He certainly had the ideological basis to support elimination of opposition and, after his leadership in collectivization, knew he possessed considerable authority. It has been postulated that Molotov himself developed the infamous quota system.46 This seems unlikely, since Molotov was not part of the NKVD. Interestingly, he never mentions the quota system directly in his conversations with Chuev. This is strange, since he proudly recalls signing death lists and carrying out collectivization. However, he frequently discusses the 'justice' of 1937 and that it was the correct way to deal with enemies .. It is possible to speculate that, by not mentioning the quota lists, Molotov attempts to deny their existence and ignore the most terrible of his actions. 41 Shvernik et al., Report of the Commission, 35. 42 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 14. 43 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 296. 44 Ibid., 296. 45 Michael Lynch, Stalin's Russia, 1924-53 (London: Hodder Education, 2008),72. 46 Polonsky, Molotov's Magic Lantern, 88. 10 Extended essay History sample A 9 4: Stalin and Molotov's Cooperation in the Nazi-Soviet Pact 4.1: Molotov's Role in the Pact After thus leading the forced collectivization and the Purges :from a virtually invisible position in the Politburo, Molotov achieved international recognition in his role as Foreign Minister in 1939. According to Riasanovsky, no high-ranking party member had held the position sinceTrotsky in 1918,55 evidencing the post's sudden relevance as the Second World War began. With respect to 47 Lynch, Stalin's Russia, 1924-53, 27. 48 Oxley, Russia 1855-1991, 198. 49 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 13. 50 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 263. 51 . In explaining Molotov's motivation for carrying out the Terror, Lynch reasons that "[people] like Ezhov, Beria and Molotov derived the same vindictive satisfaction :from their work as their master did."47 Some place Molotov alongside NKVD chiefs Ezhov and Beria as architects of the Terror,48 others put him "second only to (...) Stalin."49Molotov himself said that, "as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, [he was] accountable for all the repressions"50 and "[considered them] correct."51 This assessment implies that Molotov, if not the engineer of the Purges, was at least instrumental enough to share responsibility. Molotov was a close second to Stalin in supporting and counter-signing the death sentences.52 His role is confirmed by the Shvemik Report, which states that he shared Stalin's responsibility for the repressions and was "the second figure after Stalin," omnipresent throughout the Terror. 53Thc: suspicion that he could have been responsible for the quota system, and the fact that his signature was necessary for the arrest warrants, places him on equal ground with Stalin. Although we cannot definitively assess Molotov's precise responsibility, it is equally clear that we cannot accept that _Stalin. .alone was responsible for the ideology and authorization of the Purges.54 52 53 54 Ibid., 256. McCauley, The Soviet Union 1917-1991, 107. Shvernik et al., Report of the Commission, 35. Felix Chuev, Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics: Conversations with Felix Chuev, ed. Albert Resis Chicago: IvanR. Dee, 1993).256. 55 NicholasV. Riasanovsky and Mark D. Steinberg, A History of Russia, 7th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 506. 11 Extended essay History sample A 9 the Nazi-Soviet Pact, the conventional view is that Stalin ''took it upon himself to be his own foreign minister acting through Molotov."56 Molotov's position is generally seen not as a meritbased promotion or a reward for loyalty, but as a strategic placement to increase Stalin's own power over international, affairs.57However, Molotov's involvement in negotiation of the Pact indicates, once again, collaboration rather than subservience. In the internationally publicized photograph of the signing ceremony Molotov, not Stalin,isseen signing the agreement,whilehis leader stands in the background. (Appendix A). Molotov was present throughout the negotiations of the pact,58 but reports of his engagement during debate are varied. The British ambassador to Moscow in 1939, Sir William Seeds, thought of Molotov as "totally ignorant of foreign affairs."59 Churchill called him "a robot," implying that he merely obeyed orders and lacked personal character.60 It is true that he was inexperienced in diplomacy, but his successin negotiating the Pact shows that he was far from ---·· ---··--,·---·-- . ignorant. While Molotov's argument style may have been robotic, he did not simply follow Stalin's orders. As Molotov received all the public recognition for the Pact, between broadcast speeches and the publicized photograph; it is unlikely that he sat passively by while Stalin conducted negotiations. Montefiore argues that Stalin was "clearly the engine" behind the Pact and led the discussions,61 but Molotov himself disagrees. "I was always an active participant in everything, never a passive observer" he tells Chuev.62 It is possible that Molotov was selfaggrandizing in this report, and yet many who witnessed him negotiating speak of a similar engagement. Molotov did notsimply defer to more authoritative figures. Hitler'sinterpreterPaul Schmidt was shocked in 1940 by Molotov's outgoing directness in discussions with Hitler, emphasizing that 56 Robert C. Tucker, foreword to Stalin's Letters to Molotov, by Josef V. Stalin, ed. Robert C. Tucker, et al., trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), ix. 57 Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, 40. 58 Behind Closed Doors, "Unlikely Friends 1/2," episode 1. 59 Sir William Seeds, quoted in Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 15. 60 Winston Churchill, quoted in Polonsky, Molotov's Magic Lantern, 66. 61 Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, 316. 62 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 319. 12 Extended essay History sample A 11 no foreigner had ever spoken to the Fuhrer so demandingly in his presence before.63 Whether speaking to Stalin or Hitler, Molotov disregarded their authority over him and demanded attention, using, when necessary, "harsh words and tone."64 Schmidt's observation fits perfectly with Molotov's interactions with Stalin; his arguing skills were well suited to diplomacy. As Pritt summarizes, "Molotov says what he means and.means what he says," 65 acting without hesitation even when confronting dictatorial leaders. These comments contrast so greatly with Churchill's and Seeds' interpretations that we can wonder whether the robotic attitude that Churchill noted referred more to Molotov's determination than to unthinking loyalty to Stalin. Molotov's role is illustrated in a speech on August 31, 1939, in which he, not Stalin, presents the pact to the public. The speech justifies the nonaggression agreement between the two ideological rivals, which Molotov introduces as being in the "interests of the Soviet people."66 He illustrates Soviet international policy at the time, emphasizing that the USSR would and could not be excluded from international negotiations.67 The treaty came after years of anti-Nazi propaganda, and it fell to Molotov to announce to the public that the USSR's greatest enemy was now its ally.68 Although it is not surprising that he received some public credi.t for his actions as Foreign Minister, it is interesting that Stalin allowed him to make this incredibly pivotal speech. Molotov also presented the speech two years later announcing that the USSR was at war with Germany. It is possible that Stalin delegated these duties to him to avoid personal involvement in a treaty he knew would crumble. Even if this was his motivation, Stalin still granted Molotov an unusual amount of power as Foreign Minister. 63 PaulSchmidt, quoted inRoberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior,43. . 64 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior,37. 65 D. N. Pritt, foreword to Soviet Peace Policy by V.M. Molotov 1940 - A Collection of Four Speeches, by V. M. Molotov (London: Lawrence and Wishart (for the Anglo-Russian News Bulletin), 1941). 66 Vyacheslav M. Molotov, "The Meaning of the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact," speech presented at Meeting of the Fourth Special Session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Moscow, August 31, 1939, Internet Archive, last modified 2001, accessed July 7, 2013, http://archive.org/detailsffheMeani ngOfTheSoviet-germanNonaggressionPact. 67 Ibid. 68 Molotov, ''The Meaning of the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact," speech, Internet Archive. 13 Extended essay History sample A 11 4.2 : Molotov and Stalinas a NegotiatingTeam 5: The Relationship between Molotov and Stalin It seems bizarre that a man with this much power who played such a major role in the most significant events of his time would be allowed to survive beside a dictator renowned for his irrational, power-hungry paranoia. The fact that Molotov survived Stalin's Purges indicates a personal relationship that kept Molotov in Stalin's favor and 'gave him license to express his own opinion. Instead of simply obeying any order from Stalin, as some suggest,72Molotov was not afraid to question Stalin's opinion and disagree with him. "I can stand on my own two feet; I hold my own opinions. Perhaps it did not always ·please him, nevertheless I told him my frank 69 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 34. 70 Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, 308. 71 Robert 0.Paxton,Europe in the Twentieth Century(NewYork: Harcourt BraceJovanovich, 1975),427+ 72 Lars T. Lih, Oleg V. Naumov, and Oleg V. Khlevniuk, preface to Stalin's Letters to Molotov, by Josef V. Stalin, ed. Robert C. Tucker, et al., trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New Haven, USA: Yale Unversity Press, 1995), xiii. Molotov was not a passive observer as Stalin conducted negotiations. Roberts offers the best description of their relationship in negotiations: "Stalin and Molotov played good cop/bad cop," covering between them multiple perspectives.69Roberts, consistently with his views of other areas of Molotov's career, places him side by side with Stalin in negotiations. Montefiore describes a similar relationship, calling Stalin and Molotov an "international double act" in which Stalin played the more radiCal, Molotov the more analytical role.70This view is based partially on information revealed after the opening of the Soviet archives in 1991.By contrast, Paxton's 1970s description of the Pact never mentions Molotov, 71 demonstrating the effectiveness of Khrushchev's de-Stalinization. Even our post-1991 knowledge of Molotov is limited, but the fact that he presented the treaty to the public indicates his importance in its creation. Molotov was extremely active as Foreign Minister; while Stalin and Hitler never met, Molotov travelled to Berlin to meet personally with Hitler. Stalin was present and active throughout negotiation of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, but the Foreign Minister himself was equally involved, actingaswould theminister of a non-dictatorial country and reaping the publicity that this post would offer. 14 Extended essay History sample A 12 opinion” These words, coming from any other person, would likely have led to imprisonment or death, and yet, for Molotov, his opinions and fearlessness may well have led to his survival. Stalin valued Molotov's opinion and shared confidential information with him. After sharing plans regarding the removal of Bukharin in a letter to Molotov, Stalin warned that "for the time being, this is just between you and me.''74 This indicates that Stalin trusted Molotov more than anyone else and valued his opinion on matters such as purging high-ranking party members. Molotov was "more direct" than Stalin and, as has been suggested, proved to be a necessary counterpart.75 His knowledge, personality and perseverance made him indispensible to Stalin. Despite his courage in standing up to Stalin, Molotov knew how to grovel, and was so "incredibly devoted that he would back down and agree with Stalin when it became necessary.'' 76 When he displeased Stalin by abstaining from a vote to exile his wife, he withdrew his abstention, admitted his mistake and divorced her, to be reunited only after Stalin's death.77 Molotov had an almost uncanny awareness of how far he could push Stalin, and, by backing down when needed, managed to work with him for 41 years and outlive most of his colleagues.78 He understood how to interpret Stalin's irrationality better than others, and, apatt from this one incident, does not seem to ever have seriously displeased his leader. It is not true that Molotov won his power due to blind loyalty and agreement with Stalin's every word, as Khrushchev and many historians have implied. He "spoke out about certain matters in a way others hypocritically avoided"79 and was the only man who could talk to Stalin "as one comrade to another.''80 He did not get so lulled into Stalin's cult of personality that he never questioned his leader, and yet he truly believed in even the most brutal of Stalin's policies. "Let us assume he made mistakes. But name someone who made fewer mistakes," emphasizes 73 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 306. 74 Stalin, Stalin's Letters to Molotov, 216. 75 Montefiore, Stalin:· The Court of the Red Tsar, 308. 76 Tamara Eidelman, "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Signed August 24, 1939,"Russian Life 52, no. 4 (July/August 2009). 77 Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 17. 78 Montefiore, Young Stalin, 248. 79 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 213. 80 Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, 320. 15 Extended essay History sample A 13 Molotov, indicating his complete support of Stalin even after the dictator's death.81 Marshal Georgii Zhukov, Stalin's deputy supreme commander during World War II, recognized Molotov's power and that "he was able to exert a strong influence on Stalin."82 Instead of seeing Stalin as the engine behind Molotov's actions, as Montefiore does, it may be necessary, in some situations, to reverse these roles. Molotov must have been indispensible to Stalin, or Stalin would not have allowed him to retain such prominent positions. By disagreeing and sharing his own opinion, Molotov likely influenced Stalin's own policies. Conclusion In conclusion, Molotov was a loyal puppet not to Stalin, but to the communist ideology he strongly supported. He was, in all his roles, responsible for "carrying out in action the fight for socialism," the prime example of a Soviet citizen.83 He supported and oversaw collectivization and the Purges, seeing the sacrifices as necessary to the establishment of a communist state. When Stalin did not adhere to Molotov's ideology, Molotov would argue against him. He was "utterly convinced of his rectitude" and willing to do anything for the party he believed in.84 · Despite Khrushchev's efforts to divest Molotov of all responsibility for the events of the 1930s and exclusively blame Stalin, strong evidence suggests that, in some situations, Molotov may have been Stalin's equal more than his subordinate. Even during Khrushchev's life Molotov's influence was not ignored, and he features prominently in the unpublicized Shvemik Report, if not in publicized accounts during de-Stalinization.85 He remembers Stalin saying, late in his life, "let Vyacheslav go to work now."86 With this comment, Stalin, according to Molotov, was '? considering stepping down and letting his younger colleague assume the dictatorship.' This provides an unconventional view of the megalomaniac Stalin and hints that he considered Molotov his likely successor. 81 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 183. 82 Marshal Georgii Zhukov, quoted in Roberts, Molotov: Stalin's Cold Warrior, 16. 83 Pritt, foreword to Soviet Peace Policy by V. M..Molotov. 84 Chuev, Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 308. 85 Shvernik et al., Report of the Commission. 86 Josef Stalin, quoted in Chuev, Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 190. 16 Extended essay History sample A 15 Molotov, as one of the very few whom Stalin trusted, was able to provide much of the advice Stalin required in leading the USSR. He worked behind the scenes, offering advice but remaining invisible to the public until the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Molotov agreed with Chuev's assessment, asserting that he was "the second most powerful man in the state" and vital in the government's decisions.87 He was valued because of his courage to question Stalin's decisions while remaining finnly rooted in his interpretation of communist ideology. By insisting on doctrine Molotov became a hugely important but underestimated driving force behind Stalin's policies, influencing the domestic and foreign policies of the 1930s so significantly that he cannot be merely dismissed as Stalin's subservient follower. He survived Stalin's Purges and was trusted with unrivalled power because, as he himself asks, "If Stalin did not trust me, whom could he rely on?"ss 87 Chuev, Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 323. 88 Molotov, interview, in Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, 326. 17 Extended essay History sample A 15 Bibliography Behind Closed Doors. "Unlikely Friends 1/2." Episode 1. BBC. First broadcast 2008. Written by Laurence Rees: Directed by Andrew Wiliams. Qmlkins, Janet. Joseph Stalin. New York: Franklin Watts, 199Russia (Russian: Россия, romanized: Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]), or the Russian Federation,[c] is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world by area, its vast landmass stretching over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia. Russia extends across eleven time zones and shares land boundaries with fourteen countries.[d] It is the world's ninth-most populous country and Europe's most populous country. The country's capital and largest city is Moscow. Saint Petersburg is Russia's cultural centre and second-largest city. Other major urban areas in the country include Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Chelyabinsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Kazan. The East Slavs emerged as a recognisable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Rus' ultimately disintegrated, with the Grand Duchy of Moscow growing to become the Tsardom of Russia. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia's monarchic rule was abolished and eventually replaced by the Russian SFSR—the world's first constitutionally socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three other Soviet republics, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. At the expense of millions of lives, the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, and later played a decisive role for the Allies of World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed with the United States for global ideological influence; the Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space. In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the independent Russian Federation. A new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced democratic backsliding and a shift towards authoritarianism. Russia has been involved militarily in a number of post-Soviet conflicts, which has included the internationally unrecognised annexations of Crimea in 2014 from neighbouring Ukraine, followed by the further annexation of four other regions in 2022 during an ongoing invasion. Internationally, Russia ranks amongst the lowest in measurements of democracy, human rights and freedom of the press; the country also has high levels of perceived corruption. The Russian economy ranks 11th by nominal GDP, relying heavily upon its abundant natural resources. Its mineral and energy sources are the world's largest, and its figures for oil production and natural gas production rank high globally. The Russian GDP ranks 65th by per capita, Russia possesses the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons, and has the third-highest military expenditure. The country is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, the SCO, BRICS, the APEC, the OSCE, and the WTO; and is the leading member state of post-Soviet organizations such as the CIS, the CSTO, and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Russia is home to 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Etymology Main article: Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia The name Russia comes from a Medieval Latin name for Rus', a medieval state populated primarily by the East Slavs.[20][21] In modern historiography, this state is usually denoted as Kievan Rus' after its capital city.[22] The name Rus' itself comes from the early medieval Rus' people, who were originally a group of Norse merchants and warriors who relocated from across the Baltic Sea and first settled in the northern region of Novgorod, and later founded a state centred on Kiev.[23] Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was Ruthenia.[24] In Russian, the current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Byzantine Greek name for Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía).[25] A new form of the name Rus', Росия (Rosiya), was borrowed from the Greek term and first attested in 1387,[26] before coming into official use by the 15th century, though the country was still often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus' or the Russian land until the end of the 17th century.[27][28] There are two words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English – русские (russkiye), which refers to ethnic Russians, and россияне (rossiyane), which refers to Russian citizens, regardless of ethnicity.[28][29] History Main article: History of Russia Early history Further information: Ancient Greek colonies, Early Slavs, Huns, Turkic expansion, and Prehistory of Siberia See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homeland The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.[30] Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus.[31] Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.[32] Fossils of Denny, an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[33] Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.[34] The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia.[35] The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo,[36] and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in western Russia.[37] Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya.[38] Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.[39] Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,[40] including the Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.[41] Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.[42][43] Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic.[44] Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo,[44] Sintashta,[45] Arkaim,[46] and Pazyryk,[47] which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare.[45] The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.[48] In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns.[49][failed verification] Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,[50] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[51] The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[52] After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.[53] The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe c. 1500 years ago.[54] The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in western Russia,[55] and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finnic peoples.[49] Kievan Rus' Main articles: Rus' Khaganate; Kievan Rus'; and List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine Kievan Rus' after the Council of Liubech in 1097 The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.[56][failed verification] According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars.[49] Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[57] and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia.[58][59] In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda.[49] The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[49] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.[60] Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,[60] leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.[49] Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240,[61] as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.[62] Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.[49] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.[63] Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it surrendered and agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.[49] Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[49] Grand Duchy of Moscow Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow Sergius of Radonezh blessing Dmitry Donskoy in Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by Ernst Lissner The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal.[64]: 11–20  While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[65] gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands".[66] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[67] Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.[68] Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[49] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.[66] Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the Golden Horde and consolidated the whole of northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first Russian ruler to take the title "Grand Duke of all Rus'". After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.[66] Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.[69] Tsardom of Russia Main article: Tsardom of Russia See also: Moscow, third Rome Ivan IV was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then Tsar of Russia until his death in 1584. In development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand duke Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned the first tsar of Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[66] During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga,[70] and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains.[71] However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[72] In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were thoroughly defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.[73] The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[74] The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[75] In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky.[76] The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[77] Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks.[78] In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis; whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule.[79] In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[78] In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.[80] Imperial Russia Main article: Russian Empire Expansion and territorial evolution of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire between the 14th and 20th centuries Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[81] The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin.[82] However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.[83] Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most populous country in Europe.[84] In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea.[85] As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus.[86] Catherine's successor, her son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues.[87] Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,[88] and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.[89] In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska.[90] In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made.[91] In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.[92] Great power and development of society, sciences and arts During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris.[93] Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[94] Napoleon's retreat from Moscow by Albrecht Adam (1851) The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.[95] At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.[96] Great liberal reforms and capitalism Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.[97] These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.[98] During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.[99] The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[100] The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[101] Constitutional monarchy and World War Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the failure of the humiliating Russo-Japanese War.[102] The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.[103] Revolution and civil war Main articles: Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and the Romanovs were executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918. In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia,[104] and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies.[105] In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army.[106] However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.[107] In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War.[108] The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government,[109] and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.[107] An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state.[107] The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army.[110] In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[111] Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky during a 1920 speech in Moscow The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.[112] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror.[113] By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[114] Millions became White émigrés,[115] and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.[116] Soviet Union Main article: History of the Soviet Union Location of the Russian SFSR (red) within the Soviet Union in 1936 Command economy and Soviet society On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics.[117] Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of 15 republics; the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union for its entire history politically, culturally, and economically.[118][failed verification] Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.[119] Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,[120] and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line.[121] The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.[122] Stalinism and violent modernization Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule;[123] and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[124] The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,[125] led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933; which killed up to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.[126] The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[127] World War II and United Nations Main article: Soviet Union in World War II The Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the German army. The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland,[128] in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany.[129] The Soviet Union later invaded Finland,[130] and occupied and annexed the Baltic states,[131] as well as parts of Romania.[132]: 91–95  On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union,[133] opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World War II.[134]: 7  Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;[135]: 272  the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost.[136]: 175–186  Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow.[137] Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[138] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[139] Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[140] Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945.[141] In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[142] The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War.[143] The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.[144]: 27  During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million,[145] accounting for about half of all World War II casualties.[146]: 295  The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947.[147] However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.[148] Superpower and Cold War The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin After World War II, parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and eastern parts of Austria were occupied by Red Army according to the Potsdam Conference.[149] Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states.[150] After becoming the world's second nuclear power,[151] the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance,[152] and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.[153] Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps.[154] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw.[155] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.[156] In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age.[157] Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 crewed spacecraft on 12 April 1961.[158] Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy.[159] In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.[160] In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[161] Mikhail Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with Ronald Reagan in the Reykjavík Summit, 1986 Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.[162] This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[163] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[164] By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[165] On 17 March, a referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation.[166] In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected president in Russian history when he was elected president of the Russian SFSR.[167] In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[168] On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.[169] Independent Russian Federation Main article: History of Russia (1991–present) Further information: Presidency of Boris Yeltsin, Russia under Vladimir Putin, and Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on his first inauguration, with Boris Yeltsin looking over, 2000. Transition to a market economy and political crises The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy".[170] The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of the infamous Russian oligarchs.[171] Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.[172] The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed,[173][174] and millions plunged into poverty;[175] while extreme corruption,[176] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.[177] In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[178] Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[179] The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.[180] From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[181] Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[e][182] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.[183] In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.[184] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.[185] Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding On 31 December 1999, president Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,[186] handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.[187] Putin then won the 2000 presidential election,[188] and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.[189] Putin won a second presidential term in 2004.[190] High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve significantly.[191] Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state.[192] In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected president for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits;[193] this period has been described as a "tandemocracy".[194] Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine as of 30 September 2022 at the time their annexation was declared Following a diplomatic crisis with neighbouring Georgia, the Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it occupies in Georgia.[195] It was the first European war of the 21st century.[196] Invasion of Ukraine In early 2014, following a revolution in Ukraine, Russia occupied and annexed Crimea from neighbouring Ukraine following a disputed referendum,[197] with Russian troops later participating in a war in eastern Ukraine between Russian-backed separatists and Ukrainian troops.[198] In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022.[199] The invasion marked the largest conventional war in Europe since World War II,[200] and was met with international condemnation,[201] as well as expanded sanctions against Russia.[202] As a result, Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March,[203] and was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council in April.[204] In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives,[205] Putin announced a "partial mobilisation", Russia's first mobilisation since World War II.[206] By the end of September, Putin proclaimed the annexation of four Ukrainian regions, the largest annexation in Europe since World War II.[207] Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognized and widely denounced as illegal, despite the fact that Russian forces have been unable to fully occupy any of the four regions.[207] A number of supranational and national parliaments passed resolutions declaring Russia to be a state sponsor of terrorism.[208] In addition, Russia was declared a terrorist state by Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.[209] Tens of thousands are estimated to have been killed as a result of the invasion.[210][211] The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia's demographic crisis.[212] In June 2023, the Wagner Group, a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defense, capturing Rostov-on-Don, before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.[213][214] Geography Main article: Geography of Russia Topographic map of Russia Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[215] It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia; and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).[f][217] Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south.[218] Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[g] and has the same surface area as Pluto.[219] Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the southernmost regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest peak in Russia and Europe);[10] the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia).[220][221] The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia.[222] The lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.[223] Russia, as one of the world's only three countries bordering three oceans,[215] has links with a great number of seas.[h][224] Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands (four of which are disputed with Japan), and Sakhalin.[225][226] The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi) apart;[227] and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.[2] Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,[215] has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water.[221] Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.[228] Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe.[215] Russia is second only to Brazil by total renewable water resources.[229] The Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the longest river in Europe; and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the continent.[230] The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the world's longest rivers.[231] Climate Main article: Climate of Russia Köppen climate classification of Russia The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[232] Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),[225] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.[232] The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[232] In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate.[232] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.[233] Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer; as spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low and extremely high temperatures.[232] The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.[234] Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires,[235] and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.[236] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of Russia See also: List of ecoregions in Russia Yugyd Va National Park in the Komi Republic is the largest national park in Europe.[222] Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.[237] About half of Russia's territory is forested,[10] and it has the world's largest area of forest,[238] which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.[238][239] Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species of algae, and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of 320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).[237][240] Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.[237] Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.[237] They include 45 biosphere reserves,[241] 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.[242] Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered intact forest; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[243] Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries; and the first ranked major nation globally.[244] Government and politics Main article: Politics of Russia Vladimir Putin President Mikhail Mishustin Prime Minister A chart of the Russian political system Russia, by 1993 constitution, is a symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state,[245] and the prime minister is the head of government.[10] It is structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:[246] Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council,[246] adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of the president.[247] Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, and appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.[245] The president may issue decrees of unlimited scope, so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.[248] Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,[246] interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.[249] The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.[250][i] Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia, and has been described as "big tent" and the "party of power".[252][253] Under the administrations of Vladimir Putin, Russia has experienced democratic backsliding,[254][255] and has become an authoritarian state[11] under a dictatorship,[8][256] with Putin's policies being referred to as Putinism.[257] Political divisions Main article: Political divisions of Russia Russia, by 1993 constitution, is a symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but no regions have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.[258] The federal subjects[j] have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly.[259] They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.[260] The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[261] Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.[262] Federal subjects Governance   46 oblasts The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.[263]   22 republics Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[264]   9 krais For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.[265]   4 autonomous okrugs Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[266]   3 federal cities Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).[267]   1 autonomous oblast The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[268] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Russia Putin with G20 counterparts in Osaka, 2019 Russia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains diplomatic relations with 190 United Nations member states, four partially-recognised states, and three United Nations observer states; along with 144 embassies.[269] Russia is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It has historically been a great power,[270] and a former superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.[148] Russia is a member of the G20, the OSCE, and the APEC. Russia also takes a leading role in organisations such as the CIS,[271] the EAEU,[272] the CSTO,[273] the SCO,[274] and BRICS.[275] Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states.[276] Serbia has been a historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[277] India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.[278] Russia wields influence across the geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia; and the two regions have been described as Russia's "backyard".[279][280]    Russia    Countries on Russia's "Unfriendly Countries List". The list includes countries that have imposed sanctions against Russia for its invasion of Ukraine. In the 21st century Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance and international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. Military intervention in the post-soviet states include a war with Georgia in 2008, and the invasion and destabilisation of Ukraine beginning in 2014. Russia has also sought to increase its influence in the Middle East, most significantly through military intervention in the Syrian civil war. Cyberwarfare and airspace violations, along with electoral interference, have been used to increase perceptions of Russian power.[281] Russia's relations with neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—especially the United States, the European Union, the United Nations and NATO—have collapsed; especially following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014 and the consequent escalation in 2022.[282][283] Relations between Russia and China have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically; due to shared political interests.[284] Turkey and Russia share a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship.[285] Russia maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.[286] Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic,[287] Asia-Pacific,[288] Africa,[289] the Middle East,[290] and Latin America.[291] According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, two-thirds of the world’s population live in countries such as China or India that are neutral or leaning towards Russia.[292] Military Main article: Russian Armed Forces Sukhoi Su-57, a fifth-generation fighter of the Russian Air Force[293] The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops.[10] As of 2021, the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 2–20 million reserve personnel.[294][295] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.[10] Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.[296] Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines,[297] and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers.[298] Russia maintains the world's third-highest military expenditure, spending $86.4 billion in 2022, corresponding to around 4.1% of its GDP.[299] In 2021 it was the world's second-largest arms exporter, and had a large and entirely indigenous defence industry, producing most of its own military equipment.[300] Human rights and corruption Main articles: Human rights in Russia and Corruption in Russia Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.[301] Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly criticised by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[302][303] Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey.[304] Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 146th out of 167 countries in 2022.[305] In regards to media freedom, Russia was ranked 155th out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2022.[306] The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and human rights activists for unfair elections,[307] crackdowns on opposition political parties and protests,[308][309] persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and killings of independent journalists,[310][311][312] and censorship of mass media and internet.[313] Russia's autocratic[314] political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy,[315] an oligarchy,[316] and a plutocracy.[317] It was the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2021, ranking 136th out of 180 countries.[318] Russia has a long history of corruption, which is seen as a significant problem.[319] It impacts various sectors, including the economy,[320] business,[321] public administration,[322] law enforcement,[323] healthcare,[324][325] education,[326] and the military.[327] Muslims, especially Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia.[328][329] To quash the insurgency in the North Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,[330] arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.[331][332] In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.[333][334] Chechens and Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[335] During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars.[336][337] Law and crime Main articles: Law of Russia and Crime in Russia The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Statutes, like the Russian Civil Code and the Russian Criminal Code, are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.[338][339][340] Russia has the world's second largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, is ranked first in Europe and 32nd globally in the Global Organized Crime Index, and is among the countries with the highest number of people in prison.[341][342][343] Economy Main article: Economy of Russia Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in Russia The Moscow International Business Centre in Moscow. The city has one of the world's largest urban economies.[344] Russia has a market economy, with enormous natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas.[345] It has the world's ninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the sixth-largest by PPP. The large service sector accounts for 62% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (32%), while the agricultural sector is the smallest, making up only 5% of total GDP.[10] Russia has a low official unemployment rate of 4.1%.[346] Its foreign exchange reserves are the world's fifth-largest, worth $540 billion.[347] It has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's sixth-largest.[348] Russia is the world's thirteenth-largest exporter and the 21st-largest importer.[349][350] It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022,[351] and up to 60% of its exports in 2019.[352] Russia has one of the lowest levels of external debt among major economies,[353] although its inequality of household income and wealth is one of the highest among developed countries.[354] High regional disparity is also an issue.[355][356] After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil-prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment,[191] Russia's economy was damaged following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War and the annexation of Crimea in 2014, due to the first wave of Western sanctions being imposed.[357] In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced revamped sanctions and corporate boycotts,[358] becoming the most sanctioned country in the world,[359] in a move described as an "all-out economic and financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system.[202] Due to the impact, the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022.[360] Economists suggest the sanctions will have a long-term effect over the Russian economy.[361] Transport and energy Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in Russia The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to Vladivostok.[362] Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's third-longest, and exceeds 87,000 km (54,100 mi).[363] As of 2016, Russia has the world's fifth-largest road network, with 1.5 million km of roads,[364] while its road density is among the world's lowest.[365] Russia's inland waterways are the world's longest, and total 102,000 km (63,380 mi).[366] Among Russia's 1,218 airports,[367] the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the Port of Novorossiysk in Krasnodar Krai along the Black Sea.[368] Russia was widely described as an energy superpower.[369] It has the world's largest proven gas reserves,[370] the second-largest coal reserves,[371] the eighth-largest oil reserves,[372] and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe.[373] Russia is also the world's leading natural gas exporter,[374] the second-largest natural gas producer,[375] and the second-largest oil producer and exporter.[376][377] Russia's oil and gas production led to deep economic relationships with the European Union, China, and former Soviet and Eastern Bloc states.[378][379] For example, over the last decade, Russia's share of supplies to total European Union (including the United Kingdom) gas demand increased from 25% in 2009 to 32% in the weeks before the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.[379] In the mid-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP.[380] The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices,[381] but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP, including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities, amounts to 19.2% in 2019 and 15.2% in 2020. This is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan. It is much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.[382][383][384][385][386] Russia ratified the Paris Agreement in 2019.[387] Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia are the world's fourth-largest.[388] Russia is the world's fourth-largest electricity producer.[389] It was also the world's first country to develop civilian nuclear power, and to construct the world's first nuclear power plant.[390] Russia was also the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer in 2019,[391] and was the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer in 2021.[392] Agriculture and fishery Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in Russia Wheat in Tomsk Oblast, Siberia Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.[393] It has the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,[10] and only 7.4% of its land is arable.[394] The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe.[395] More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is devoted to industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.[393] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies considerably more than half of the cropland.[393] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat,[396][397] the largest producer of barley and buckwheat, among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, and the leading producer of fertilizer.[398] Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[399] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[400] It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.[393] Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in Russia See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of Russian inventors Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the world's tenth-highest budget.[401] It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.[402] Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace.[403] Russia ranked 45th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021.[404] Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and Pafnuty Chebyshev, a prominent tutor; Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential.[405] Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry.[406] Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[407] Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,[408] while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.[409] Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[410] Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.[411] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology.[412] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning.[413] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.[414] Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centres of origin of cultivated plants.[415] Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism.[416] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer.[417] Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems.[418] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[419] George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.[420] Space exploration Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.[421]: 6–7, 333  In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6.[422] In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.[423] In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2.[424] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.[425] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.[426] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus.[427] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[428]: 34–60  During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,[429] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.[430] Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.[431] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Russia Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg, a UNESCO World Heritage Site According to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.[432] According to Federal Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.[433] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 amounted to $11.6 billion.[432] In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.[434] Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities, cruises on large rivers such as the Volga, hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains,[435] and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.[436] Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.[437] Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling megacity. It retains its classical and Soviet-era architecture; while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.[438] Saint Petersburg, the Imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, white nights, criss-crossing rivers and numerous canals.[439] Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery; and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[440] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Russia, Russians, List of cities and towns in Russia, and List of cities and towns in Russia by population Ethnic groups across Russia Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over 1 million according to the 2010 census Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2010 census Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated and urbanised countries,[10] with the vast majority of its population concentrated within its western part.[441] It had a population of 142.8 million according to the 2010 census,[442] which rose to roughly 145.5 million as of 2022.[15][clarification needed] Russia is the most populous country in Europe, and the world's ninth most populous country, with a population density of 9 inhabitants per square kilometre (23 inhabitants/sq mi).[443] Since the 1990s, Russia's death rate has exceeded its birth rate, which some analysts have called a demographic crisis.[444] In 2019, the total fertility rate across Russia was estimated to be 1.5 children born per woman,[445] which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the world's lowest fertility rates.[446] Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's oldest populations, with a median age of 40.3 years.[10] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration.[447] However, since 2020, Russia's population gains have been reversed, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in its largest peacetime decline in history.[448] Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis in the country has deepened,[449] as the country has reportedly suffered high military fatalities while facing renewed brain drain and human capital flight caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.[450] Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.[451] There are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities;[452] while over four-fifths of Russia's population was of European descent—of whom the vast majority were Slavs,[453] with a substantial minority of Finnic and Germanic peoples.[454][455] According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;[456] most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly from Central Asia.[457]  vte Largest cities or towns in Russia 2021 Census[458] Rank Name Federal subject Pop. Rank Name Federal subject Pop. Moscow Moscow Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg 1 Moscow Moscow 13,010,112 11 Rostov-on-Don Rostov Oblast 1,142,162 Novosibirsk Novosibirsk Yekaterinburg Yekaterinburg 2 Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg 5,601,911 12 Omsk Omsk Oblast 1,125,695 3 Novosibirsk Novosibirsk Oblast 1,633,595 13 Krasnodar Krasnodar Krai 1,099,344 4 Yekaterinburg Sverdlovsk Oblast 1,544,376 14 Voronezh Voronezh Oblast 1,057,681 5 Kazan Tatarstan 1,308,660 15 Perm Perm Krai 1,034,002 6 Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod Oblast 1,228,199 16 Volgograd Volgograd Oblast 1,028,036 7 Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk Oblast 1,189,525 17 Saratov Saratov Oblast 901,361 8 Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk Krai 1,187,771 18 Tyumen Tyumen Oblast 847,488 9 Samara Samara Oblast 1,173,299 19 Tolyatti Samara Oblast 684,709 10 Ufa Bashkortostan 1,144,809 20 Barnaul Altai Krai 630,877 Language Main articles: Russian language and Languages of Russia Minority languages across Russia Altaic and Uralic languages spoken across Russia The North Caucasus is ethno-linguistically diverse.[459] Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[3] It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language.[460] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,[461] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[460] Russia is a multilingual nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[462][463] According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian.[464] The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[465] However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.[466][467] Religion Main article: Religion in Russia Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of Russia. Russia is a secular state by constitution, and its largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church.[7] Orthodox Christianity, together with Islam, Buddhism, and Paganism (either preserved or revived), are recognised by Russian law as the traditional religions of the country, part of its "historical heritage".[468][469] Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia, and is the traditional religion among the majority of the peoples of the North Caucasus, and among some Turkic peoples scattered along the Volga-Ural region.[7] Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the population in Tuva.[7] Many Russians practise other religions, including Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),[470] Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[471] other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism,[472] various movements of Hinduism,[473] Siberian shamanism[474] and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism, and other faiths.[475][476] Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country;[477] notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.[478] In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[b] 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[7] Education Main article: Education in Russia Moscow State University, the most prestigious educational institution in Russia[479] Russia has an adult literacy rate of 100%,[480] and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[481] It grants free education to its citizens by constitution.[482] The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education; while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.[481] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.[483] It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.[484] Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[485] some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[481] An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.[486] Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[482] first-degree courses usually take five years.[486] The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University.[487] There are ten highly prestigious federal universities across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.[488] Health Main article: Healthcare in Russia Metallurg, a Soviet-era sanatorium in Sochi[489] Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.[490] The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[491] Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.[492] Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[493] Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female,[10] due to its high male mortality rate.[494] In 2019, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 73.2 years (68.2 years for males and 78.0 years for females),[495] and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).[496] The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.[497] Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese.[498] However, Russia's historically high alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country,[499] as it remains one of the world's highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade.[500] Smoking is another health issue in the country.[501] The country's high suicide rate, although on the decline,[502] remains a significant social issue.[503] Culture Main article: Russian culture The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, at night Russian culture has been formed by the nation's history, its geographical location and its vast expanse, religious and social traditions, and Western influence.[504] Russian writers and philosophers have played an important role in the development of European literature and thought.[505][506] The Russians have also greatly influenced classical music,[507] ballet,[508] sport,[509] painting,[510] and cinema.[511] The nation has also made pioneering contributions to science and technology and space exploration.[512][513] Russia is home to 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 19 out of which are cultural; while 27 more sites lie on the tentative list.[514] The large global Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the double-headed eagle, dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in its coat of arms and heraldry.[66] The Russian Bear and Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country.[515][516] Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.[517] Holidays Main article: Public holidays in Russia The Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the Neva in Saint Petersburg Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[518] The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[519] Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[520] International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other holidays.[521] Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[522] Victory Day, which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square;[523] and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.[524] Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union;[525] and Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.[526] There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[527] Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[528] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[529] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[530] Art and architecture Main articles: Russian artists, Russian architecture, and List of Russian architects Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii (1833) The Winter Palace served as the official residence of the Emperor of Russia. Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th-century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.[531] The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.[81] In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.[532] The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases.[533][534] Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.[535] In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.[536] The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism; represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich.[537][538] The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky,[539] Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.[540] The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the church architecture of Kievan Rus'.[541] Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by Byzantine architecture.[542] Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia.[543] The 16th-century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches; and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.[544] In the 17th-century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[545] After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the splendid works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century; Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.[531] During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture.[546] Under Alexander I, Empire style became the de facto architectural style.[547] The second half of the 19th-century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style.[548] In early 20th-century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[549] Prevalent styles of the late 20th-century were Art Nouveau,[550] Constructivism,[551] and Socialist Classicism.[552] Music Main article: Music of Russia Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov Until the 18th-century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.[553] In the 19th-century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle,[554] and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.[555] The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov,[553] Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina,[556] Georgy Sviridov,[557] and Alfred Schnittke.[556] During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[556] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[558] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[556] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[559] DDT,[560] and Kino;[561] the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.[562] Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[563] Literature and philosophy Main articles: Russian literature and Russian philosophy Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as War and Peace.[564] Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include Crime and Punishment[565] Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.[505] It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed.[566] By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.[567] From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[568] Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.[569] Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.[567] The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol.[570] Then came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels.[571] Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire,[572] while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.[573] In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.[574] Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov,[575] non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky,[576] and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky.[577][578] The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry. This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, and Konstantin Balmont.[579] It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.[567] After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.[580] Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[581] Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov,[582] and Isaac Asimov; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[583] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[584] Russian philosophy has been greatly influential. Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of agrarian populism.[585] Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism.[586] Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of anarcho-communism.[587] Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired scholars.[588] Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, and co-founded the Theosophical Society.[589] Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism.[590] Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism.[591] Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century.[592] Aleksandr Dugin, known for his fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".[593] Cuisine See also: Russian cuisine Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage. Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties,[594] is very popular across Russia.[595] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[596][597] Pirozhki,[598] blini,[599] and syrniki are native types of pancakes.[600] Beef Stroganoff,[601]: 266  Chicken Kiev,[601]: 320  pelmeni,[602] and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[603] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat.[604] Salads include Olivier salad,[605] vinegret,[606] and dressed herring.[607] Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[608] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its creation in the nation dates back to the 14th century.[609] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[610] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[611] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[612] Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[613] Mass media and cinema Main articles: Media of Russia and Cinema of Russia Ostankino Tower in Moscow, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe[614] There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax.[615] Television is the most popular medium in Russia.[616] Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.[616] Russia has the largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.[617] Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as The Battleship Potemkin, which was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958.[618][619] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[620][621] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.[622] Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[623] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.[511] The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[511] The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[624][625] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[511] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[626] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.[627] Sports Main article: Sport in Russia Maria Sharapova, former world No. 1 tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.[628] Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[629] The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,[630] and reached the finals of Euro 1988.[631] Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[632][633] The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.[634] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[635] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[636] However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.[637] Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.[509] Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.[638] The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007,[639] and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.[640] The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[641][642] Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games.[509] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.[643] Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.[644] Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.[645] Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[646] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[647] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[648][649] However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[650] See also flag Russia portal Outline of Russia Notes  Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.[1] Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were annexed—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost Kuril Islands have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[2]  The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[7]  Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]  Russia shares land borders with fourteen sovereign states:[19] Norway and Finland to the northwest; Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and Ukraine to the west, as well as Lithuania and Poland (with Kaliningrad Oblast); Georgia and Azerbaijan to the southwest; Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the south; China and North Korea to the southeast—as well as sharing maritime boundaries with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares borders with the two partially recognised breakaway states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia that it occupies in Georgia.  Most notably the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the Russian apartment bombings, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege  Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[216]  Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.  Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to its west: the Baltic Sea, to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea), the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan.  In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[251]  Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,[1] and territories set up following the Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022. Sources  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security​, International Energy Agency, the International Energy Agency. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
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