National Geographic & 54 more Smithsonian 1915 ERNEST CRANDALL published photo

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US, Item: 176299959267 National Geographic & 54 more Smithsonian 1915 ERNEST CRANDALL published photo . A rare lot of 54 photos by Ernest L. Crandall Photographer; one published in National Geographic March 1915 page 235 (magazine w/o cover is included with auction).  The published photo is of the South Front of the White House. The other 53 photos by Ernest L. Crandall  are smaller 2 3/4 x 4 1/2 inches approx for each. His photographs can be found in major collections like the Smithsonian, Tulane University and the Library of Congress. . The photos are of monuments in Washington DC as well as many capitol buildings. His photographs were later reproduced in postcards. Ernest L. Crandall Washington, D.C., USA, 1871–1951 (Photographer) Ernest L. Crandall (1871–1951) was an American free-lance professional photographer. He chronicled many of Washington’s important monuments during the early part of the twentieth century. Crandall worked as a photographer in the US Department of Agriculture and the National Park Service between 1914 and 1934. During the 1920s, he was a photographer with the Carnegie Institution of Washington’s Chichen-Itza project in the Yucatan region of Mexico. He also was a member of the team that explored the Mayan ruins at Coba and Okop.

Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington or D.C., is the capital of the United States of America.[4] Founded after the American Revolution as the seat of government of the newly independent country, Washington was named after George Washington, first President of the United States and Founding Father.[5] Washington is the principal city of the Washington metropolitan area, which has a population of 6,131,977.[6] As the seat of the United States federal government and several international organizations, the city is an important world political capital.[7] Washington is one of the most visited cities in the world, with more than 20 million annual tourists.[8][9] The signing of the Residence Act on July 16, 1790, approved the creation of a capital district located along the Potomac River on the country's East Coast. The U.S. Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, which included the pre-existing settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria. Named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land originally ceded by Virginia; in 1871, it created a single municipal government for the remaining portion of the District. Washington had an estimated population of 693,972 as of July 2017, making it the 20th largest American city by population. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city's daytime population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is the principal city, has a population of over 6 million, the sixth-largest metropolitan statistical area in the country. All three branches of the U.S. federal government are centered in the District: U.S. Congress (legislative), President (executive), and the U.S. Supreme Court (judicial). Washington is home to many national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 177 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many international organizations, trade unions, non-profit, lobbying groups, and professional associations, including the Organization of American States, AARP, the National Geographic Society, the Human Rights Campaign, the International Finance Corporation, and the American Red Cross. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973. However, Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D.C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, but the District has no representation in the Senate. The District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Contents 1 History 1.1 Foundation 1.2 Retrocession and the Civil War 1.3 Growth and redevelopment 1.4 Civil rights and home rule era 2 Geography 2.1 Climate 3 Cityscape 3.1 Architecture 4 Demographics 4.1 Crime 5 Economy 6 Culture 6.1 Landmarks 6.2 Museums 6.3 Arts 6.4 Sports 7 Media 8 Government and politics 8.1 Politics 8.2 Budgetary issues 8.3 Voting rights debate 8.4 Sister cities 9 Education 9.1 Higher education 10 Infrastructure 10.1 Transportation 10.2 Utilities 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links History Further information: History of Washington, D.C. and Timeline of Washington, D.C. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people (also known as the Conoy) inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century. One group known as the Nacotchtank (also called the Nacostines by Catholic missionaries) maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland.[10] In his Federalist No. 43, published January 23, 1788, James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety.[11] Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia. Known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security.[12] Article One, Section Eight, of the Constitution permits the establishment of a "District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States".[13] However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital. In what is now known as the Compromise of 1790, Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson came to an agreement that the federal government would pay each state's remaining Revolutionary War debts in exchange for establishing the new national capital in the southern United States.[14][a] Foundation On July 9, 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, who signed the bill into law on July 16. Formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (259 km2).[15][b] Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory: the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751,[16] and the city of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749.[17] During 1791–92, Andrew Ellicott and several assistants, including a free African American astronomer named Benjamin Banneker, surveyed the borders of the federal district and placed boundary stones at every mile point.[18] Many of the stones are still standing.[19] A new federal city was then constructed on the north bank of the Potomac, to the east of Georgetown. On September 9, 1791, the three commissioners overseeing the capital's construction named the city in honor of President Washington. The federal district was named Columbia, which was a poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time.[20][21] Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17, 1800.[22] Congress passed the Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District and placed the entire territory under the exclusive control of the federal government. Further, the unincorporated area within the District was organized into two counties: the County of Washington to the east of the Potomac and the County of Alexandria to the west.[23] After the passage of this Act, citizens living in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, which therefore ended their representation in Congress.[24] On August 24–25, 1814, in a raid known as the Burning of Washington, British forces invaded the capital during the War of 1812. The Capitol, Treasury, and White House were burned and gutted during the attack.[25] Most government buildings were repaired quickly; however, the Capitol was largely under construction at the time and was not completed in its current form until 1868.[26] Retrocession and the Civil War See also: District of Columbia retrocession and Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War President Abraham Lincoln insisted that construction on the United States Capitol dome continue during the American Civil War; 1861. In the 1830s, the District's southern territory of Alexandria went into economic decline partly due to neglect by Congress.[27] The city of Alexandria was a major market in the American slave trade, and pro-slavery residents feared that abolitionists in Congress would end slavery in the District, further depressing the economy. Alexandria's citizens petitioned Virginia to take back the land it had donated to form the District, through a process known as retrocession.[28] The Virginia General Assembly voted in February 1846 to accept the return of Alexandria and on July 9, 1846, Congress agreed to return all the territory that had been ceded by Virginia. Therefore, the District's current area consists only of the portion originally donated by Maryland.[27] Confirming the fears of pro-slavery Alexandrians, the Compromise of 1850 outlawed the slave trade in the District, although not slavery itself.[29] The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to the expansion of the federal government and notable growth in the District's population, including a large influx of freed slaves.[30] President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act in 1862, which ended slavery in the District of Columbia and freed about 3,100 enslaved persons, nine months prior to the Emancipation Proclamation.[31] In 1868, Congress granted the District's African American male residents the right to vote in municipal elections.[30] Growth and redevelopment Crowds surrounding the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool during the Great March on Washington; 1963. By 1870, the District's population had grown 75% from the previous census to nearly 132,000 residents.[32] Despite the city's growth, Washington still had dirt roads and lacked basic sanitation. Some members of Congress suggested moving the capital further west, but President Ulysses S. Grant refused to consider such a proposal.[33] Congress passed the Organic Act of 1871, which repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and created a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia.[34] President Grant appointed Alexander Robey Shepherd to the position of governor in 1873. Shepherd authorized large-scale projects that greatly modernized Washington, but ultimately bankrupted the District government. In 1874, Congress replaced the territorial government with an appointed three-member Board of Commissioners.[35] The city's first motorized streetcars began service in 1888 and generated growth in areas of the District beyond the City of Washington's original boundaries. Washington's urban plan was expanded throughout the District in the following decades.[36] Georgetown was formally annexed by the City of Washington in 1895.[37] However, the city had poor housing conditions and strained public works. Washington was the first city in the nation to undergo urban renewal projects as part of the "City Beautiful movement" in the early 1900s.[38] Increased federal spending as a result of the New Deal in the 1930s led to the construction of new government buildings, memorials, and museums in Washington.[39] World War II further increased government activity, adding to the number of federal employees in the capital;[40] by 1950, the District's population reached its peak of 802,178 residents.[32] Civil rights and home rule era The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1961, granting the District three votes in the Electoral College for the election of president and vice president, but still no voting representation in Congress.[41] After the assassination of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968, riots broke out in the District, primarily in the U Street, 14th Street, 7th Street, and H Street corridors, centers of black residential and commercial areas. The riots raged for three days until more than 13,600 federal troops stopped the violence. Many stores and other buildings were burned; rebuilding was not completed until the late 1990s.[42] In 1973, Congress enacted the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, providing for an elected mayor and 13-member council for the District.[43] In 1975, Walter Washington became the first elected and first black mayor of the District.[44] Geography Main article: Geography of Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. is located in Washington Metropolitan AreaCalvertCharlesFrederickMontgomeryPrince George'sAlexandriaAlexandriaArlingtonClarkeFairfaxFairfaxFairfax CountyFalls ChurchFalls ChurchFauquierLoudounManassasManassasManassas ParkManassas ParkPrince WilliamSpotsylvaniaStaffordFredericksburgFredericksburgWarrenWashingtonWashingtonJefferson The Washington Metropolitan Area has a population of 6,131,977, as of 2014.[6] Washington, D.C., is located in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. East Coast. Due to the District of Columbia retrocession, the city has a total area of 68.34 square miles (177.0 km2), of which 61.05 square miles (158.1 km2) is land and 7.29 square miles (18.9 km2) (10.67%) is water.[45] The District is bordered by Montgomery County, Maryland, to the northwest; Prince George's County, Maryland, to the east; and Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia, to the south and west. The south bank of the Potomac River forms the District's border with Virginia and has two major tributaries: the Anacostia River and Rock Creek.[46] Tiber Creek, a natural watercourse that once passed through the National Mall, was fully enclosed underground during the 1870s.[47] The creek also formed a portion of the now-filled Washington City Canal, which allowed passage through the city to the Anacostia River from 1815 until the 1850s.[48] The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal starts in Georgetown and was used during the 19th century to bypass the Little Falls of the Potomac River, located at the northwest edge of Washington at the Atlantic Seaboard fall line.[49] The highest natural elevation in the District is 409 feet (125 m) above sea level at Fort Reno Park in upper northwest Washington.[50] The lowest point is sea level at the Potomac River.[51] The geographic center of Washington is near the intersection of 4th and L Streets NW.[52][53][54] The District has 7,464 acres (30.21 km2) of parkland, about 19% of the city's total area and the second-highest percentage among high-density U.S. cities.[55] This factor contributed to Washington, D.C., being ranked as third in the nation for park access and quality in the 2018 ParkScore ranking of the park systems of the 100 most populous cities in the United States, according to the nonprofit Trust for Public Land.[56] The National Park Service manages most of the 9,122 acres (36.92 km2) of city land owned by the U.S. government.[57] Rock Creek Park is a 1,754-acre (7.10 km2) urban forest in Northwest Washington, which extends 9.3 miles (15.0 km) through a stream valley that bisects the city. Established in 1890, it is the country's fourth-oldest national park and is home to a variety of plant and animal species, including raccoon, deer, owls, and coyotes.[58] Other National Park Service properties include the C&O Canal National Historical Park, the National Mall and Memorial Parks, Theodore Roosevelt Island, Columbia Island, Fort Dupont Park, Meridian Hill Park, Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens, and Anacostia Park.[59] The D.C. Department of Parks and Recreation maintains the city's 900 acres (3.6 km2) of athletic fields and playgrounds, 40 swimming pools, and 68 recreation centers.[60] The U.S. Department of Agriculture operates the 446-acre (1.80 km2) U.S. National Arboretum in Northeast Washington.[61] Climate See also: List of Maryland hurricanes (1950–present) and List of tornadoes of Washington, D.C. The Washington Monument seen across the Tidal Basin during the National Cherry Blossom Festival. Washington is in the northern part of the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen: Cfa)[62] However, under the Trewartha climate classification, the city has a temperate maritime climate (Do).[63] Winters are usually chilly with light snow, and summers are hot and humid. The District is in plant hardiness zone 8a near downtown, and zone 7b elsewhere in the city, indicating a humid subtropical climate.[64] Spring and fall are mild to warm, while winter is chilly with annual snowfall averaging 15.5 inches (39 cm). Winter temperatures average around 38 °F (3 °C) from mid-December to mid-February.[65] Summers are hot and humid with a July daily average of 79.8 °F (26.6 °C) and average daily relative humidity around 66%, which can cause moderate personal discomfort.[66] The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms, some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area.[67] Meridian Hill Park in Columbia Heights, Northwest, Washington, D.C. Blizzards affect Washington on average once every four to six years. The most violent storms are called "nor'easters", which often affect large sections of the East Coast.[68] From January 27 to January 28, 1922, the city officially received 28 inches (71 cm) of snowfall, the largest snowstorm since official measurements began in 1885.[69] According to notes kept at the time, the city received between 30 and 36 inches (76 and 91 cm) from a snowstorm in January 1772.[70] Hurricanes (or their remnants) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall, but are often weak by the time they reach Washington, partly due to the city's inland location.[71] Flooding of the Potomac River,[72] however, caused by a combination of high tide, storm surge, and runoff, has been known to cause extensive property damage in the neighborhood of Georgetown.[73] Precipitation occurs throughout the year.[74] The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on August 6, 1918, and on July 20, 1930.[75] while the lowest recorded temperature was −15 °F (−26 °C) on February 11, 1899, right before the Great Blizzard of 1899.[68] During a typical year, the city averages about 37 days at or above 90 °F (32 °C) and 64 nights at or below 32 °F (0 °C).[65] On average, the first day at or below 32 °F (0 °C) is November 18 and the last day is March 27.[76][77] vte Climate data for Washington, D.C. (Reagan National Airport), 1981−2010 normals,[c] extremes 1871−present[d] Cityscape See also: Streets and highways of Washington, D.C.; Neighborhoods in Washington, D.C.; and List of tallest buildings in Washington, D.C. The L'Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C., as revised by Andrew Ellicott in 1792 Washington, D.C., is a planned city. In 1791, President Washington commissioned Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant, a French-born architect and city planner, to design the new capital. He enlisted Scottish surveyor Alexander Ralston to help lay out the city plan.[81] The L'Enfant Plan featured broad streets and avenues radiating out from rectangles, providing room for open space and landscaping.[82] He based his design on plans of cities such as Paris, Amsterdam, Karlsruhe, and Milan that Thomas Jefferson had sent to him.[83] L'Enfant's design also envisioned a garden-lined "grand avenue" approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) in length and 400 feet (120 m) wide in the area that is now the National Mall.[84] President Washington dismissed L'Enfant in March 1792 due to conflicts with the three commissioners appointed to supervise the capital's construction. Andrew Ellicott, who had worked with L'Enfant surveying the city, was then tasked with completing the design. Though Ellicott made revisions to the original plans, including changes to some street patterns, L'Enfant is still credited with the overall design of the city.[85] A tall red brick building in the center of a city skyline punctuated by steeples and other shorter buildings. Construction of the 12-story Cairo Apartment Building (1894) spurred building height restrictions By the early 1900s, L'Enfant's vision of a grand national capital had become marred by slums and randomly placed buildings, including a railroad station on the National Mall. Congress formed a special committee charged with beautifying Washington's ceremonial core.[38] What became known as the McMillan Plan was finalized in 1901 and included re-landscaping the Capitol grounds and the National Mall, clearing slums, and establishing a new citywide park system. The plan is thought to have largely preserved L'Enfant's intended design.[82] By law, Washington's skyline is low and sprawling. The federal Height of Buildings Act of 1910 allows buildings that are no taller than the width of the adjacent street, plus 20 feet (6.1 m).[86] Despite popular belief, no law has ever limited buildings to the height of the United States Capitol or the 555-foot (169 m) Washington Monument,[54] which remains the District's tallest structure. City leaders have criticized the height restriction as a primary reason why the District has limited affordable housing and traffic problems caused by urban sprawl.[86] The District is divided into four quadrants of unequal area: Northwest (NW), Northeast (NE), Southeast (SE), and Southwest (SW). The axes bounding the quadrants radiate from the U.S. Capitol building.[87] All road names include the quadrant abbreviation to indicate their location and house numbers generally correspond with the number of blocks away from the Capitol. Most streets are set out in a grid pattern with east–west streets named with letters (e.g., C Street SW), north–south streets with numbers (e.g., 4th Street NW), and diagonal avenues, many of which are named after states.[87] The City of Washington was bordered by Boundary Street to the north (renamed Florida Avenue in 1890), Rock Creek to the west, and the Anacostia River to the east.[36][82] Washington's street grid was extended, where possible, throughout the District starting in 1888.[88] Georgetown's streets were renamed in 1895.[37] Some streets are particularly noteworthy, such as Pennsylvania Avenue, which connects the White House to the Capitol and K Street, which houses the offices of many lobbying groups.[89] Washington hosts 177 foreign embassies, constituting approximately 297 buildings beyond the more than 1,600 residential properties owned by foreign countries, many of which are on a section of Massachusetts Avenue informally known as Embassy Row.[90] Architecture The White House ranked second on the AIA's "List of America's Favorite Architecture". The architecture of Washington varies greatly. Six of the top 10 buildings in the American Institute of Architects' 2007 ranking of "America's Favorite Architecture" are in the District of Columbia:[91] the White House, the Washington National Cathedral, the Thomas Jefferson Memorial, the United States Capitol, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. The neoclassical, Georgian, gothic, and modern architectural styles are all reflected among those six structures and many other prominent edifices in Washington. Notable exceptions include buildings constructed in the French Second Empire style such as the Eisenhower Executive Office Building.[92] Outside downtown Washington, architectural styles are even more varied. Historic buildings are designed primarily in the Queen Anne, Châteauesque, Richardsonian Romanesque, Georgian revival, Beaux-Arts, and a variety of Victorian styles. Rowhouses are especially prominent in areas developed after the Civil War and typically follow Federalist and late Victorian designs.[93] Georgetown's Old Stone House was built in 1765, making it the oldest-standing original building in the city.[94] Founded in 1789, Georgetown University features a mix of Romanesque and Gothic Revival architecture.[92] The Ronald Reagan Building is the largest building in the District with a total area of approximately 3.1 million square feet (288,000 m2).[95] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Washington, D.C. Historical population Census Pop. %± 1800 8,144 — 1810 15,471 90.0% 1820 23,336 50.8% 1830 30,261 29.7% 1840 33,745 11.5% 1850 51,687 53.2% 1860 75,080 45.3% 1870 131,700 75.4% 1880 177,624 34.9% 1890 230,392 29.7% 1900 278,718 21.0% 1910 331,069 18.8% 1920 437,571 32.2% 1930 486,869 11.3% 1940 663,091 36.2% 1950 802,178 21.0% 1960 763,956 −4.8% 1970 756,510 −1.0% 1980 638,333 −15.6% 1990 606,900 −4.9% 2000 572,059 −5.7% 2010 601,723 5.2% Est. 2017 693,972 [3] 15.3% Source:[32][96] Note:[e] Demographic profile 2010[98] 1990[99] 1970[99] 1940[99] White 38.5% 29.6% 27.7% 71.5%  —Non-Hispanic whites 34.8% 27.4% 26.5%[100] 71.4% Black or African American 50.7% 65.8% 71.1% 28.2% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 9.1% 5.4% 2.1%[100] 0.1% Asian 3.5% 1.8% 0.6% 0.2% The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that the District's population was 693,972 on July 1, 2017, a 15.3% increase since the 2010 United States Census.[3] The increase continues a growth trend since 2000, following a half-century of population decline.[101] The city was the 24th most populous place in the United States as of 2010.[102] According to data from 2010, commuters from the suburbs increase the District's daytime population to over one million people.[103] If the District were a state it would rank 49th in population, ahead of Vermont and Wyoming.[3] The Washington Metropolitan Area, which includes the District and surrounding suburbs, is the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the United States with an estimated 6 million residents in 2014.[104] When the Washington area is included with Baltimore and its suburbs, the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area had a population exceeding 9.6 million residents in 2016, the fourth-largest combined statistical area in the country.[105] According to 2016 Census Bureau data, the population of Washington, D.C., was 47.7% Black or African American, 44.6% White (36.4% non-Hispanic White), 4.1% Asian, 0.6% American Indian or Alaska Native, and 0.2% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. Individuals from two or more races made up 2.7% of the population. Hispanics of any race made up 10.9% of the District's population.[3] Map of racial distribution in Washington, D.C., 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: White, Black, Asian, Hispanic or Other (yellow) Washington has had a significant African American population since the city's foundation.[106] African American residents composed about 30% of the District's total population between 1800 and 1940.[32] The black population reached a peak of 70% by 1970, but has since steadily declined due to many African Americans moving to the surrounding suburbs. Partly as a result of gentrification, there was a 31.4% increase in the non-Hispanic white population and an 11.5% decrease in the black population between 2000 and 2010.[107] About 17% of D.C. residents were age 18 or younger in 2010; lower than the U.S. average of 24%. However, at 34 years old, the District had the lowest median age compared to the 50 states.[108] As of 2010, there were an estimated 81,734 immigrants living in Washington, D.C.[109] Major sources of immigration include El Salvador, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, with a concentration of Salvadorans in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood.[110] Researchers found that there were 4,822 same-sex couples in the District of Columbia in 2010; about 2% of total households.[111] Legislation authorizing same-sex marriage passed in 2009 and the District began issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples in March 2010.[112] A 2007 report found that about one-third of District residents were functionally illiterate, compared to a national rate of about one in five. This is attributed in part to immigrants who are not proficient in English.[113] As of 2011, 85% of D.C. residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language.[114] Half of residents had at least a four-year college degree in 2006.[109] D.C. residents had a personal income per capita of $55,755; higher than any of the 50 states.[115] However, 19% of residents were below the poverty level in 2005, higher than any state except Mississippi.[116] Of the District's population, 17% is Baptist, 13% is Catholic, 6% is evangelical Protestant, 4% is Methodist, 3% is Episcopalian/Anglican, 3% is Jewish, 2% is Eastern Orthodox, 1% is Pentecostal, 1% is Buddhist, 1% is Adventist, 1% is Lutheran, 1% is Muslim, 1% is Presbyterian, 1% is Mormon, and 1% is Hindu.[117][f] As of 2010, over 90% of D.C. residents had health insurance coverage, the second-highest rate in the nation. This is due in part to city programs that help provide insurance to low-income individuals who do not qualify for other types of coverage.[118] A 2009 report found that at least 3% of District residents have HIV or AIDS, which the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) characterizes as a "generalized and severe" epidemic.[119] Pew Research Center 2014 Religious Landscape Study on religion in the Washington, D.C.[120] Crime Main articles: Crime in Washington, D.C. and List of law enforcement agencies in the District of Columbia Crime in Washington, D.C., is concentrated in areas associated with poverty, drug abuse, and gangs. A 2010 study found that 5% of city blocks accounted for over one-quarter of the District's total crime.[121] The more affluent neighborhoods of Northwest Washington are typically safe, especially in areas with concentrations of government operations, such as Downtown Washington, D.C., Foggy Bottom, Embassy Row, and Penn Quarter, but reports of violent crime increase in poorer neighborhoods generally concentrated in the eastern portion of the city.[121] Approximately 60,000 residents are ex-convicts.[122] In 2012, Washington's annual murder count had dropped to 88, the lowest total since 1961.[123] The murder rate has since risen from that historic low, though it remains close to half the rate of the early 2000s.[124] Washington was once described as the "murder capital" of the United States during the early 1990s.[125] The number of murders peaked in 1991 at 479, but the level of violence then began to decline significantly.[126] In 2016, the District's Metropolitan Police Department tallied 135 homicides, a 53% increase from 2012 but a 17% decrease from 2015.[127] Many neighborhoods such as Columbia Heights and Logan Circle are becoming safer and vibrant. However, incidents of robberies and thefts have remained higher in these areas because of increased nightlife activity and greater numbers of affluent residents.[128] Even still, citywide reports of both property and violent crimes have declined by nearly half since their most recent highs in the mid-1990s.[129] On June 26, 2008, the Supreme Court of the United States held in District of Columbia v. Heller that the city's 1976 handgun ban violated the right to keep and bear arms as protected under the Second Amendment.[130] However, the ruling does not prohibit all forms of gun control; laws requiring firearm registration remain in place, as does the city's assault weapon ban.[131] In addition to the District's own Metropolitan Police Department, many federal law enforcement agencies have jurisdiction in the city as well – most visibly the U.S. Park Police, founded in 1791.[132] Economy See also: Category:Companies based in Washington, D.C. and Category:Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C. Federal Triangle on Pennsylvania Avenue; the U.S. federal government accounts for about 29% of D.C. jobs Washington has a growing, diversified economy with an increasing percentage of professional and business service jobs.[133] The gross state product of the District in 2010 was $103.3 billion, which would rank it No. 34 compared to the 50 states.[134] The gross product of the Washington Metropolitan Area was $435 billion in 2014, making it the sixth-largest metropolitan economy in the United States.[135] Between 2009 and 2016, GDP per capita in Washington, D.C has consistently ranked on the very top among U.S. states.[136] In 2016, at $160,472, its GDP per capita is almost three times as high as that of Massachusetts, which ranked second place in the country.[136] As of June 2011, the Washington Metropolitan Area had an unemployment rate of 6.2%; the second-lowest rate among the 49 largest metro areas in the nation.[137] The District of Columbia itself had an unemployment rate of 9.8% during the same time period.[138] In December 2017, 25% of the employees in Washington, D.C., were employed by a federal governmental agency.[139][140] This is thought to immunize Washington, D.C., to national economic downturns because the federal government continues operations even during recessions.[141] Many organizations such as law firms, defense contractors, civilian contractors, nonprofit organizations, lobbying firms, trade unions, industry trade groups, and professional associations have their headquarters in or near Washington, D.C., in order to be close to the federal government.[89] Tourism is Washington's second-largest industry. Approximately 18.9 million visitors contributed an estimated $4.8 billion to the local economy in 2012.[142] The District also hosts nearly 200 foreign embassies and international organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organization of American States, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the Pan American Health Organization. In 2008, the foreign diplomatic corps in Washington employed about 10,000 people and contributed an estimated $400 million annually to the local economy.[90] The District has growing industries not directly related to government, especially in the areas of education, finance, public policy, and scientific research. Georgetown University, George Washington University, Washington Hospital Center, Children's National Medical Center and Howard University are the top five non-government-related employers in the city as of 2009.[143] According to statistics compiled in 2011, four of the largest 500 companies in the country were headquartered in the District.[144] In the 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Washington was ranked as having the 12th most competitive financial center in the world, and fifth most competitive in the United States (after New York City, San Francisco, Chicago, and Boston).[145] Culture Main article: Culture of Washington, D.C. Landmarks The Lincoln Memorial receives approximately 6 million visits annually. See also: List of National Historic Landmarks in Washington, D.C.; National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington, D.C.; and List of museums in Washington, D.C. The National Mall is a large, open park in downtown Washington between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol. Given its prominence, the mall is often the location of political protests, concerts, festivals, and presidential inaugurations. The Washington Monument and the Jefferson Pier are near the center of the mall, south of the White House. Also on the mall are the National World War II Memorial at the east end of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, the Korean War Veterans Memorial, and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.[146] Directly south of the mall, the Tidal Basin features rows of Japanese cherry blossom trees that originated as gifts from the nation of Japan.[147] The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, George Mason Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, and the District of Columbia War Memorial are around the Tidal Basin.[146] The National Archives houses thousands of documents important to American history, including the Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.[148] Located in three buildings on Capitol Hill, the Library of Congress is the largest library complex in the world with a collection of over 147 million books, manuscripts, and other materials.[149] The United States Supreme Court Building was completed in 1935; before then, the court held sessions in the Old Senate Chamber of the Capitol.[150] Museums The Smithsonian Institution is the world’s largest research and museum complex[151] The Smithsonian Institution is an educational foundation chartered by Congress in 1846 that maintains most of the nation's official museums and galleries in Washington, D.C. The U.S. government partially funds the Smithsonian and its collections are open to the public free of charge.[152] The Smithsonian's locations had a combined total of 30 million visits in 2013. The most visited museum is the National Museum of Natural History on the National Mall.[153] Other Smithsonian Institution museums and galleries on the mall are: the National Air and Space Museum; the National Museum of African Art; the National Museum of American History; the National Museum of the American Indian; the Sackler and Freer galleries, which both focus on Asian art and culture; the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden; the Arts and Industries Building; the S. Dillon Ripley Center; and the Smithsonian Institution Building (also known as "The Castle"), which serves as the institution's headquarters.[154] The Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Portrait Gallery are housed in the Old Patent Office Building, near Washington's Chinatown.[155] The Renwick Gallery is officially part of the Smithsonian American Art Museum but is in a separate building near the White House. Other Smithsonian museums and galleries include: the Anacostia Community Museum in Southeast Washington; the National Postal Museum near Union Station; and the National Zoo in Woodley Park.[154] The National Gallery of Art is one of the largest art museums in the world. The National Gallery of Art is on the National Mall near the Capitol and features works of American and European art. The gallery and its collections are owned by the U.S. government but are not a part of the Smithsonian Institution.[156] The National Building Museum, which occupies the former Pension Building near Judiciary Square, was chartered by Congress and hosts exhibits on architecture, urban planning, and design.[157] There are many private art museums in the District of Columbia, which house major collections and exhibits open to the public such as the National Museum of Women in the Arts and The Phillips Collection in Dupont Circle, the first museum of modern art in the United States.[158] Other private museums in Washington include the Newseum, the O Street Museum Foundation, the International Spy Museum, the National Geographic Society Museum, the Marian Koshland Science Museum and the Museum of the Bible. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum near the National Mall maintains exhibits, documentation, and artifacts related to the Holocaust.[159] Arts Main articles: Theater in Washington, D.C. and Music of Washington, D.C. The Kennedy Center for Performing Arts is home to the Washington National Opera and National Symphony Orchestra. Washington, D.C., is a national center for the arts. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts is home to the National Symphony Orchestra, the Washington National Opera, and the Washington Ballet. The Kennedy Center Honors are awarded each year to those in the performing arts who have contributed greatly to the cultural life of the United States.[160] The historic Ford's Theatre, site of the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, continues to operate as a functioning performance space as well as a museum.[161] The Marine Barracks near Capitol Hill houses the United States Marine Band; founded in 1798, it is the country's oldest professional musical organization.[162] American march composer and Washington-native John Philip Sousa led the Marine Band from 1880 until 1892.[163] Founded in 1925, the United States Navy Band has its headquarters at the Washington Navy Yard and performs at official events and public concerts around the city.[164] Washington has a strong local theater tradition. Founded in 1950, Arena Stage achieved national attention and spurred growth in the city's independent theater movement that now includes organizations such as the Shakespeare Theatre Company, Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company, and the Studio Theatre.[165] Arena Stage opened its newly renovated home in the city's emerging Southwest waterfront area in 2010.[166] The GALA Hispanic Theatre, now housed in the historic Tivoli Theatre in Columbia Heights, was founded in 1976 and is a National Center for the Latino Performing Arts.[167] The U Street Corridor in Northwest D.C., known as "Washington's Black Broadway", is home to institutions like the Howard Theatre, Bohemian Caverns, and the Lincoln Theatre, which hosted music legends such as Washington-native Duke Ellington, John Coltrane, and Miles Davis.[168] Washington has its own native music genre called go-go; a post-funk, percussion-driven flavor of rhythm and blues that was popularized in the late 1970s by D.C. band leader Chuck Brown.[169] The District is an important center for indie culture and music in the United States. The label Dischord Records, formed by Ian MacKaye, was one of the most crucial independent labels in the genesis of 1980s punk and eventually indie rock in the 1990s.[170] Modern alternative and indie music venues like The Black Cat and the 9:30 Club bring popular acts to the U Street area.[171] Sports Main article: Sports in Washington, D.C. Nationals Park is the home of the Washington Nationals Washington is one of 13 cities in the United States with teams from all four major professional men's sports and is home to one major professional women's team. The Washington Wizards (National Basketball Association), the Washington Capitals (National Hockey League), and the Washington Mystics (Women's National Basketball Association), play at the Capital One Arena in Chinatown. Nationals Park, which opened in Southeast D.C. in 2008, is home to the Washington Nationals (Major League Baseball). D.C. United (Major League Soccer) plays at Audi Field. The Washington Redskins (National Football League) play at FedExField in nearby Landover, Maryland. Current D.C. teams have won a combined eleven professional league championships: the Washington Redskins have won five;[172] D.C. United has won four;[173] and the Washington Wizards (then the Washington Bullets) and Washington Capitals have each won a single championship.[174][175] Other professional and semi-professional teams in Washington include: the Washington Kastles (World TeamTennis); the Washington D.C. Slayers (USA Rugby League); the Baltimore Washington Eagles (U.S. Australian Football League); the D.C. Divas (Independent Women's Football League); and the Potomac Athletic Club RFC (Rugby Super League). The William H.G. FitzGerald Tennis Center in Rock Creek Park hosts the Citi Open. Washington is also home to two major annual marathon races: the Marine Corps Marathon, which is held every autumn, and the Rock 'n' Roll USA Marathon held in the spring. The Marine Corps Marathon began in 1976 and is sometimes called "The People's Marathon" because it is the largest marathon that does not offer prize money to participants.[176] The District's four NCAA Division I teams, American Eagles, George Washington Colonials, Georgetown Hoyas and Howard Bison and Lady Bison, have a broad following. The Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball team is the most notable and also plays at the Capital One Arena. From 2008 to 2012, the District hosted an annual college football bowl game at RFK Stadium, called the Military Bowl.[177] The D.C. area is home to one regional sports television network, Comcast SportsNet (CSN), based in Bethesda, Maryland. Media Main article: Media in Washington, D.C. See also: List of newspapers in Washington, D.C. and List of television shows set in Washington, D.C. The Washington Post Building on Franklin Square. Washington, D.C., is a prominent center for national and international media. The Washington Post, founded in 1877, is the oldest and most-read local daily newspaper in Washington.[178] "The Post", as it is popularly called, is well known as the newspaper that exposed the Watergate scandal.[179] It had the sixth-highest readership of all news dailies in the country in 2011.[180] The Washington Post Company also publishes a daily free commuter newspaper called the Express, which summarizes events, sports and entertainment, as well as the Spanish-language paper El Tiempo Latino. Another popular local daily is The Washington Times, the city's second general interest broadsheet and also an influential paper in political circles.[181] The alternative weekly Washington City Paper also has a substantial readership in the Washington area.[182][183] The Watergate Complex was the site of the Watergate Scandal, which led to President Nixon's resignation. Some community and specialty papers focus on neighborhood and cultural issues, including the weekly Washington Blade and Metro Weekly, which focus on LGBT issues; the Washington Informer and The Washington Afro American, which highlight topics of interest to the black community; and neighborhood newspapers published by The Current Newspapers. Congressional Quarterly, The Hill, Politico and Roll Call newspapers focus exclusively on issues related to Congress and the federal government. Other publications based in Washington include the National Geographic magazine and political publications such as The Washington Examiner, The New Republic and Washington Monthly.[184] The Washington Metropolitan Area is the ninth-largest television media market in the nation, with two million homes, approximately 2% of the country's population.[185] Several media companies and cable television channels have their headquarters in the area, including C-SPAN; Black Entertainment Television (BET); Radio One; the National Geographic Channel; Smithsonian Networks; National Public Radio (NPR); Travel Channel (in Chevy Chase, Maryland); Discovery Communications (in Silver Spring, Maryland); and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (in Arlington, Virginia). The headquarters of Voice of America, the U.S. government's international news service, is near the Capitol in Southwest Washington.[186] Government and politics Main article: Government of the District of Columbia Politics See also: District of Columbia home rule; List of mayors of Washington, D.C.; and List of District of Columbia symbols Article One, Section Eight of the United States Constitution grants the United States Congress "exclusive jurisdiction" over the city. The District did not have an elected local government until the passage of the 1973 Home Rule Act. The Act devolved certain Congressional powers to an elected mayor, currently Muriel Bowser, and the thirteen-member Council of the District of Columbia. However, Congress retains the right to review and overturn laws created by the council and intervene in local affairs.[187] Each of the city's eight wards elects a single member of the council and residents elect four at-large members to represent the District as a whole. The council chair is also elected at-large.[188] There are 37 Advisory Neighborhood Commissions (ANCs) elected by small neighborhood districts. ANCs can issue recommendations on all issues that affect residents; government agencies take their advice under careful consideration.[189] The Attorney General of the District of Columbia, currently Karl Racine, is elected to a four-year term.[190] Washington, D.C., observes all federal holidays and also celebrates Emancipation Day on April 16, which commemorates the end of slavery in the District.[31] The flag of Washington, D.C., was adopted in 1938 and is a variation on George Washington's family coat of arms.[191] Budgetary issues The Wilson Building houses the offices of the Mayor of Washington and the Council of the District of Columbia. The mayor and council set local taxes and a budget, which must be approved by Congress. The Government Accountability Office and other analysts have estimated that the city's high percentage of tax-exempt property and the Congressional prohibition of commuter taxes create a structural deficit in the District's local budget of anywhere between $470 million and over $1 billion per year. Congress typically provides additional grants for federal programs such as Medicaid and the operation of the local justice system; however, analysts claim that the payments do not fully resolve the imbalance.[192][193] The city's local government, particularly during the mayoralty of Marion Barry, was criticized for mismanagement and waste.[194] During his administration in 1989, The Washington Monthly magazine claimed that the District had "the worst city government in America."[195] In 1995, at the start of Barry's fourth term, Congress created the District of Columbia Financial Control Board to oversee all municipal spending.[196] Mayor Anthony Williams won election in 1998 and oversaw a period of urban renewal and budget surpluses. The District regained control over its finances in 2001 and the oversight board's operations were suspended.[197] Voting rights debate Presidential election results[198] Year Democratic Republican 1964 85.5% 169,796 14.5% 28,801 1968 81.8% 139,566 18.2% 31,012 1972 78.1% 127,627 21.6% 35,226 1976 81.6% 137,818 16.5% 27,873 1980 74.9% 130,231 13.4% 26,218 1984 85.4% 180,408 13.7% 29,009 1988 82.6% 159,407 14.3% 27,590 1992 84.6% 192,619 9.1% 20,698 1996 85.2% 158,220 9.3% 17,339 2000 85.2% 171,923 9.0% 18,073 2004 89.0% 202,970 9.3% 21,256 2008 92.5% 245,800 6.5% 17,367 2012 90.9% 267,070 7.3% 21,381 2016 90.9% 282,830 4.1% 12,723 Mayoral election results[198] Year Democratic Republican 1974 82.5% 79,065 3.7% 3,501 1978 70.2% 68,354 28.1% 27,366 1982 81.0% 95,007 14.1% 16,502 1986 61.4% 79,142 32.8% 42,354 1990 86.2% 140,011 11.5% 18,653 1994 56.0% 102,884 41.9% 76,902 1998 66.2% 92,504 30.2% 42,280 2002 60.6% 79,841 34.5% 45,407 2006 89.7% 98,740 6.1% 6,744 2010 74.2% 97,978 No candidate 2014 54.5% 96,666 [g] See also: District of Columbia voting rights; District of Columbia retrocession § Proposed Maryland retrocession; and Political party strength in Washington, D.C. The District is not a state and therefore has no voting representation in Congress. D.C. residents elect a non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives, currently Eleanor Holmes Norton (D-D.C. At-Large), who may sit on committees, participate in debate, and introduce legislation, but cannot vote on the House floor. The District has no official representation in the United States Senate. Neither chamber seats the District's elected "shadow" representative or senators. Unlike residents of U.S. territories such as Puerto Rico or Guam, which also have non-voting delegates, D.C., residents are subject to all federal taxes.[200] In the financial year 2012, D.C., residents and businesses paid $20.7 billion in federal taxes; more than the taxes collected from 19 states and the highest federal taxes per capita.[201] The Eisenhower Executive Office Building, once the world's largest office building, houses the Executive Office of the President of the United States. A 2005 poll found that 78% of Americans did not know that residents of the District of Columbia have less representation in Congress than residents of the 50 states.[202] Efforts to raise awareness about the issue have included campaigns by grassroots organizations and featuring the city's unofficial motto, "Taxation Without Representation", on D.C. vehicle license plates.[203] There is evidence of nationwide approval for D.C. voting rights; various polls indicate that 61 to 82% of Americans believe that D.C. should have voting representation in Congress.[202][204] However, despite public support the solution to the problem is not simple. Several approaches to resolving these concerns been suggested over the years: District of Columbia Statehood: The District of Columbia would become the 51st State in the Union. District of Columbia Retrocession to Maryland: As Arlington County in 1846 was retroceeded to Virginia, proponents believe the rest of the District of Columbia with the exception of a small strip of land around the Capitol and the White House would be given back to the Maryland allowing for DC residents to become Maryland residents as they were prior to the Residence Act of 1790. District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment: this option would allow DC residents to vote in Maryland or Virginia for their congressional representatives, with the District of Columbia remaining an independent entity. This was in effect from 1790 to 1801, prior to Organic Act of 1801. Opponents of D.C. voting rights propose that the Founding Fathers never intended for District residents to have a vote in Congress since the Constitution makes clear that representation must come from the states. Those opposed to making D.C. a state claim that such a move would destroy the notion of a separate national capital and that statehood would unfairly grant Senate representation to a single city, particularly one certain to elect Democratic representatives.[205] Sister cities Washington, D.C., has fourteen official sister city agreements. Each of the listed cities is a national capital except for Sunderland, which includes the town of Washington, the ancestral home of George Washington's family.[206] Paris and Rome are each formally recognized as a partner city due to their special one sister city policy.[207] Listed in the order each agreement was first established, they are:  Bangkok, Thailand (1962, renewed 2002)  Dakar, Senegal (1980, renewed 2006)  Beijing, China (1984, renewed 2004)  Brussels, Belgium (1985, renewed 2002)  Athens, Greece (2000)  Paris, France (2000 as a friendship and cooperation agreement, renewed 2005)[207][208]  Pretoria, South Africa (2002, renewed 2008)  Seoul, South Korea (2006)  Accra, Ghana (2006)  Sunderland, United Kingdom (2006)[206]  Rome, Italy (2011)[207]  Ankara, Turkey (2011)  Brasília, Brazil (2013)  Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (2013).[209] Education See also: List of colleges and universities in Washington, D.C. and List of parochial and private schools in Washington, D.C. The Library of Congress is the largest library in the world, with more than 164 million cataloged items. District of Columbia Public Schools (DCPS) operates the city's 123 public schools.[210] The number of students in DCPS steadily decreased for 39 years until 2009. In the 2010–11 school year, 46,191 students were enrolled in the public school system.[211] DCPS has one of the highest-cost, yet lowest-performing school systems in the country, both in terms of infrastructure and student achievement.[212] Mayor Adrian Fenty's administration made sweeping changes to the system by closing schools, replacing teachers, firing principals, and using private education firms to aid curriculum development.[213] The District of Columbia Public Charter School Board monitors the 52 public charter schools in the city.[214] Due to the perceived problems with the traditional public school system, enrollment in public charter schools has steadily increased.[215] As of fall 2010, D.C., charter schools had a total enrollment of about 32,000, a 9% increase from the prior year.[211] The District is also home to 92 private schools, which enrolled approximately 18,000 students in 2008.[216] The District of Columbia Public Library operates 25 neighborhood locations including the landmark Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library.[217] Higher education Private universities include American University (AU), the Catholic University of America (CUA), Gallaudet University, George Washington University (GW), Georgetown University (GU), Howard University, the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), and Trinity Washington University. The Corcoran College of Art and Design, the oldest arts school in the capital, was absorbed into the George Washington University in 2014, now serving as its college of arts. The University of the District of Columbia (UDC) is a public land-grant university providing undergraduate and graduate education. D.C. residents may also be eligible for a grant of up to $10,000 per year to offset the cost of tuition at any public university in the country.[218] The District is known for its medical research institutions such as Washington Hospital Center and the Children's National Medical Center, as well as the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. In addition, the city is home to three medical schools and associated teaching hospitals at George Washington, Georgetown, and Howard universities.[219] Infrastructure Transportation Main article: Transportation in Washington, D.C. Washington Union Station is one of the busiest rail stations in the United States. There are 1,500 miles (2,400 km) of streets, parkways, and avenues in the District.[220] Due to the freeway revolts of the 1960s, much of the proposed interstate highway system through the middle of Washington was never built. Interstate 95 (I-95), the nation's major east coast highway, therefore bends around the District to form the eastern portion of the Capital Beltway. A portion of the proposed highway funding was directed to the region's public transportation infrastructure instead.[221] The interstate highways that continue into Washington, including I-66 and I-395, both terminate shortly after entering the city.[222] The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) operates the Washington Metro, the city's rapid transit system, as well as Metrobus. Both systems serve the District and its suburbs. Metro opened on March 27, 1976 and, as of July 2014, consists of 91 stations and 117 miles (188 km) of track.[223] With an average of about one million trips each weekday, Metro is the second-busiest rapid transit system in the country. Metrobus serves over 400,000 riders each weekday and is the nation's fifth-largest bus system.[224] The city also operates its own DC Circulator bus system, which connects commercial areas within central Washington.[225] Union Station is the city's main train station and services approximately 70,000 people each day. It is Amtrak's second-busiest station with 4.6 million passengers annually and is the southern terminus for the Northeast Corridor and Acela Express routes. Maryland's MARC and Virginia's VRE commuter trains and the Metrorail Red Line also provide service into Union Station.[226] Following renovations in 2011, Union Station became Washington's primary intercity bus transit center.[227] Three major airports serve the District. Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is across the Potomac River from downtown Washington in Arlington, Virginia and primarily handles domestic flights. Major international flights arrive and depart from Washington Dulles International Airport, 26.3 miles (42.3 km) west of the District in Fairfax and Loudoun counties in Virginia. Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport is 31.7 miles (51.0 km) northeast of the District in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. According to a 2010 study, Washington-area commuters spent 70 hours a year in traffic delays, which tied with Chicago for having the nation's worst road congestion.[228] However, 37% of Washington-area commuters take public transportation to work, the second-highest rate in the country.[229] An additional 12% of D.C. commuters walked to work, 6% carpooled, and 3% traveled by bicycle in 2010.[230] A 2011 study by Walk Score found that Washington was the seventh-most walkable city in the country with 80% of residents living in neighborhoods that are not car dependent.[231] In 2013, the Washington-Arlington-Alexandria metropolitan statistical area (MSA) had the eighth lowest percentage of workers who commuted by private automobile (75.7 percent), with 8 percent of area workers traveling via rail transit.[232] An expected 32% increase in transit usage within the District by 2030 has spurred the construction of a new DC Streetcar system to interconnect the city's neighborhoods.[233] Construction has also started on an additional Metro line that will connect Washington to Dulles airport.[234] The District is part of the regional Capital Bikeshare program. Started in 2010, it is currently one of the largest bicycle sharing systems in the country with over 4,351 bicycles and more than 395 stations[235] all provided by PBSC Urban Solutions. By 2012, the city's network of marked bicycle lanes covered 56 miles (90 km) of streets.[236] Utilities The Capitol Power Plant, built to supply energy for the U.S. Capitol Complex, is under the jurisdiction of the Architect of the Capitol. The District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority (i.e. WASA or D.C. Water) is an independent authority of the D.C. government that provides drinking water and wastewater collection in Washington. WASA purchases water from the historic Washington Aqueduct, which is operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The water, sourced from the Potomac River, is treated and stored in the city's Dalecarlia, Georgetown, and McMillan reservoirs. The aqueduct provides drinking water for a total of 1.1 million people in the District and Virginia, including Arlington, Falls Church, and a portion of Fairfax County.[237] The authority also provides sewage treatment services for an additional 1.6 million people in four surrounding Maryland and Virginia counties.[238] Pepco is the city's electric utility and services 793,000 customers in the District and suburban Maryland.[239] An 1889 law prohibits overhead wires within much of the historic City of Washington. As a result, all power lines and telecommunication cables are located underground in downtown Washington, and traffic signals are placed at the edge of the street.[240] A plan announced in 2013 would bury an additional 60 miles (97 km) of primary power lines throughout the District.[241] Washington Gas is the city's natural gas utility and serves over one million customers in the District and its suburbs. Incorporated by Congress in 1848, the company installed the city's first gas lights in the Capitol, the White House, and along Pennsylvania Avenue.[242] The Smithsonian Institution (/smɪθˈsoʊniən/ smith-SOH-nee-ən), established on August 10, 1846 "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge," is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States.[1] The institution is named after its founding donor, British scientist James Smithson.[2] Originally organized as the "United States National Museum," that name ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967.[3] Termed "the nation's attic"[4] for its eclectic holdings of 154 million items,[2] the Institution's nineteen museums, nine research centers, and zoo include historical and architectural landmarks, mostly located in the District of Columbia.[5] Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Pittsburgh, Texas, Virginia, and Panama. More than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates.[6][7] The Institution's thirty million annual visitors[8] are admitted without charge. Its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations.[9] Other funding comes from the Institution's endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, and licensing revenue.[2] Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. Contents 1 Founding 2 Development 2.1 Museums and buildings 2.2 Capital campaigns 3 Museums 3.1 Collections 4 Research centers and programs 4.1 Smithsonian Latino Center 4.1.1 History 4.1.2 Young Ambassadors Program 5 Publications 6 Awards 7 Administration 7.1 Secretaries of the Smithsonian Institution 8 Controversies 8.1 Enola Gay display 8.2 Censorship of "Seasons of Life and Land" 8.3 Copyright restrictions 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Founding The "Castle" (1847), the Institution's first building and still its headquarters The British scientist James Smithson (1765–1829) left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford. When Hungerford died childless in 1835,[10] the estate passed "to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase & diffusion of knowledge among men", in accordance with Smithson's will.[11] Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1, 1836.[12] The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest. Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns (about $500,000 at the time, which is equivalent to $11,491,000 in 2017).[13][14] Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithson's rather vague mandate "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge."[12][14] Unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. After heated debate, Massachusetts Representative (and ex-President) John Quincy Adams persuaded Congress to restore the lost funds with interest[15] and, despite designs on the money for other purposes, convinced his colleagues to preserve it for an institution of science and learning.[16] Finally, on August 10, 1846, President James K. Polk signed the legislation that established the Smithsonian Institution as a trust instrumentality of the United States, to be administered by a Board of Regents and a Secretary of the Smithsonian.[12][17] Development Though the Smithsonian's first Secretary, Joseph Henry, wanted the Institution to be a center for scientific research,[18] it also became the depository for various Washington and U.S. government collections.[19] The United States Exploring Expedition by the U.S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842.[20] The voyage amassed thousands of animal specimens, an herbarium of 50,000 plant specimens, and diverse shells and minerals, tropical birds, jars of seawater, and ethnographic artifacts from the South Pacific Ocean.[20] These specimens and artifacts became part of the Smithsonian collections,[21] as did those collected by several military and civilian surveys of the American West, including the Mexican Boundary Survey and Pacific Railroad Surveys, which assembled many Native American artifacts and natural history specimens.[22] In 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation; in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research.[23] The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, who formed a group called the Megatherium Club.[24] The Smithsonian played a critical role as the U.S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba.[25] Museums and buildings The Smithsonian Institution Building ("the Castle") began construction in 1849. Designed by architect James Renwick Jr., its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron. The building opened in 1855.[26] The Smithsonian's first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881. Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, based on original plans developed by Major General Montgomery C. Meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. It opened in 1881.[27] The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonian's Department of Living Animals.[28] The park was designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted.[28] The National Museum of Natural History opened in June 1911 to similarly accommodate the Smithsonian's United States National Museum, which had previously been housed in the Castle and then the Arts and Industries Building.[29] This structure was designed by the D.C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall.[30] When Detroit philanthropist Charles Lang Freer donated his private collection to the Smithsonian and funds to build the museum to hold it (which was named the Freer Gallery), it was among the Smithsonian's first major donations from a private individual.[31] The gallery opened in 1923.[32] More than 40 years would pass before the next museum, the Museum of History and Technology (renamed the National Museum of American History in 1980), opened in 1964. It was designed by the world-renowned firm of McKim, Mead & White.[33] The Anacostia Community Museum, an "experimental store-front" museum created at the initiative of Smithsonian Secretary S. Dillon Ripley, opened in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in 1967.[34][35][36] That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration (now the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum).[37] The National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building (built in 1867) on October 7, 1968.[38] The reuse of an older building continued with the opening of the Renwick Gallery in 1972 in the 1874 Renwick-designed art gallery originally built by local philanthropist William Wilson Corcoran to house the Corcoran Gallery of Art.[39] The first new museum building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, which opened in 1974.[40] The National Air and Space Museum, the Smithsonian's largest in terms of floor space, opened in June 1976.[41] Eleven years later, the National Museum of African Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery opened in a new, joint, underground museum between the Freer Gallery and the Smithsonian Castle.[42][43][44] Reuse of another old building came in 1993 with the opening of the National Postal Museum in the 1904 former City Post Office building, a few city blocks from the Mall.[45] In 2004, the Smithsonian opened the National Museum of the American Indian in a new building near the United States Capitol.[46] Twelve years later almost to the day, in 2016, the latest museum opened: the National Museum of African American History and Culture, in a new building near the Washington Monument.[47] Capital campaigns In 2011, the Smithsonian undertook its first-ever capital fundraising campaign.[48] The $1.5 billion effort raised $1 billion at the three-year mark. Smithsonian officials made the campaign public in October 2014 in an effort to raise the remaining $500 million. More than 60,000 individuals and organizations donated money to the campaign by the time it went public.[49] This included 192 gifts of at least $1 million.[49] Members of the boards of directors of various Smithsonian museums donated $372 million.[49] The Smithsonian said that funds raised will go toward completion of the National Museum of African American History and Culture building, and renovations of the National Air and Space Museum, National Museum of American History, and the Renwick Gallery.[49] A smaller amount of funds will go to educational initiatives and digitization of collections.[49] As of September 2017, the Smithsonian claimed to have raised $1.79 billion, with 3 months left in the formal campaign calendar.[50] Separately from the major capital campaign, the Smithsonian has begun fundraising through Kickstarter.[51] An example is a campaign to fund the preservation and maintenance of the ruby slippers from the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.[52] Museums Main article: List of Smithsonian museums Aircraft on display at the National Air and Space Museum, including a Ford Trimotor and Douglas DC-3 (top and second from top) Nineteen museums and galleries, as well as the National Zoological Park, comprise the Smithsonian museums.[53] Eleven are on the National Mall, the park that runs between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol. Other museums are located elsewhere in Washington, D.C., with two more in New York City and one in Chantilly, Virginia. The Smithsonian has close ties with 168 other museums in 39 states, Panama, and Puerto Rico.[53] These museums are known as Smithsonian Affiliated museums. Collections of artifacts are given to these museums in the form of long-term loans. The Smithsonian also has a large number of traveling exhibitions, operated through the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service (SITES).[54] In 2008, 58 of these traveling exhibitions went to 510 venues across the country.[53] The Smithsonian Institution announced in January 2015 that it is in talks to build its first permanent overseas exhibition space within London's Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park.[55] Collections [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2012) Smithsonian collections include 156 million artworks, artifacts, and specimens. The National Museum of Natural History houses 145 million of these specimens and artifacts. The Collections Search Center has 9.9 million digital records available online. The Smithsonian Institution Libraries hold 2 million library volumes. Smithsonian Archives hold 156,830 cubic feet of archival material.[56][57] The Smithsonian Institution has many categories of displays that can be visited at the museums. In 1912, First Lady Helen Herron Taft donated her inauguration gown to the museum to begin the First Ladies' Gown display,[58] one of the Smithsonian's most popular exhibits.[59] The museum displays treasures such as the Star-Spangled Banner, the stove pipe hat that was worn by President Lincoln, the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in The Wizard Of Oz, and the original Teddy Bear that was named after President Theodore Roosevelt.[60] In 2016, the Smithsonian's Air & Space museum curators restored the large model Enterprise from the original Star Trek TV series.[61] Research centers and programs The following is a list of Smithsonian research centers, with their affiliated museum in parentheses: Archives of American Art Carrie Bow Marine Field Station (Natural History Museum) Center For Earth and Planetary Studies (Air and Space Museum) Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage Marine Station at Fort Pierce (Natural History Museum) Migratory Bird Center (National Zoo) Museum Conservation Institute Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the associated Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (National Zoo) Smithsonian Environmental Research Center Smithsonian Institution Archives[62] Smithsonian Institution Libraries Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press Smithsonian Latino Center[63] Smithsonian Provenance Research Initiative (SPRI)[64] Smithsonian Science Education Center[65] Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Panamá) Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Also of note is the Smithsonian Museum Support Center (MSC), located in Silver Hill, Maryland (Suitland), which is the principal off-site conservation and collections facility for multiple Smithsonian museums, primarily the National Museum of Natural History. The MSC was dedicated in May 1983.[66] The MSC covers 4.5 acres (1.8 ha) of land, with over 500,000 square feet (46,000 m2) of space, making it one of the largest set of structures in the Smithsonian. It has over 12 miles (19 km) of cabinets, and more than 31 million objects. Smithsonian Latino Center In 1997, the Smithsonian Latino Center was created as a way to recognize Latinos across the Smithsonian Institution. The primary purpose of the center is to place Latino contributions to the arts, history, science, and national culture across the Smithsonian's museums and research centers.[67] The center is a division of the Smithsonian Institution.[68] As of May 2016, the center is run by an executive director, Eduardo Díaz.[69] History At the time of its creation, the Smithsonian Institution had other entities dedicated to other minority groups: National Museum of the American Indian, Freer-Sackler Gallery for Asian Arts and Culture, African Art Museum, and the National Museum of African-American Heritage and Culture.[70] The opening of the center was prompted, in part, by the publishing of a report called "Willful Neglect: The Smithsonian and U.S. Latinos".[70] According to documents obtained by The Washington Post, when former Latino Center executive director Pilar O'Leary first took the job, the center faced employees who had "serious performance issues". No performance plans existed for the staff and unfulfilled financial obligations to sponsors existed. The website's quality was poor, and the center did not have a public affairs manager, a programs director, adequate human resources support, or cohesive mission statement.[70] After difficult times in the first few years, the center improved. According to the Smithsonian, the center "support[s] scholarly research, exhibitions, public and educational programs, web-based content and virtual platforms, and collections and archives. [It] also manage[s] leadership and professional development programs for Latino youth, emerging scholars and museum professionals."[67] Today, the website features a high-tech virtual museum.[71] Young Ambassadors Program The Smithsonian Latino Center's Young Ambassadors Program (YAP) is a program within the Latino Center that reaches out to Latino high school students with the goal of encouraging them to become leaders in arts, sciences, and the humanities.[72] Students selected for the program travel to Washington, D.C. for an "enrichment seminar" that lasts approximately five days. Afterwards, students return to their communities to serve in a paid, one-month internship.[68] Pilar O'Leary launched the program when she served as executive director of the Smithsonian Latino Center.[73] According to the Latino Center, O'Leary told the press in 2007: "Our goal is to help our Young Ambassadors become the next generation of leaders in the arts and culture fields. This program encourages students to be proud of their roots and learn more about their cultural heritage to inspire them to educate the public in their own communities about how Latinos are enriching America's cultural fabric."[68] Publications The Institution publishes Smithsonian magazine monthly and Air & Space magazine bimonthly. Smithsonian was the result of Secretary of the Smithsonian S. Dillon Ripley asking the retired editor of Life magazine Edward K. Thompson to produce a magazine "about things in which the Smithsonian Institution is interested, might be interested or ought to be interested."[74] Another Secretary of the Smithsonian, Walter Boyne, founded Air & Space.[75][76] Smithsonian Books is a trade publisher. Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press is an academic publisher. Awards The Smithsonian makes a number of awards to acknowledge and support meritorious work. The James Smithson Medal, the Smithsonian Institution's highest award, was established in 1965 and is given in recognition of exceptional contributions to art, science, history, education and technology. The James Smithson Bicentennial Medal, established in 1965, is given to persons who have made distinguished contributions to the advancement of areas of interest to the Smithsonian. The Hodgkins Medal, established in 1893, is awarded for important contributions to the understanding of the physical environment. The Henry Medal, established in 1878, is presented to individuals in recognition of their distinguished service, achievements or contributions to the prestige and growth of the Smithsonian Institution. The Langley Gold Medal is awarded for meritorious investigations in connection with the science of aerodromics and its application to aviation. [77] Administration The Smithsonian Castle doorway The Smithsonian Institution was established as a trust instrumentality by act of Congress.[78] More than two-thirds of the Smithsonian's workforce of some 6,300 persons are employees of the federal government. The Smithsonian Office of Protection Services oversees security at the Smithsonian facilities and enforces laws and regulations for National Capital Parks together with the United States Park Police. The President's 2011 budget proposed just under $800 million in support for the Smithsonian, slightly increased from previous years. Institution exhibits are free of charge, though in 2010 the Deficit Commission recommended admission fees.[79][80] As approved by Congress on August 10, 1846, the legislation that created the Smithsonian Institution called for the creation of a Board of Regents to govern and administer the organization.[78] This 17-member board meets at least four times a year and includes as ex officio members the Chief Justice of the United States and the Vice President of the United States. The nominal head of the Institution is the Chancellor, an office which has traditionally been held by the Chief Justice. In September 2007, the board created the position of Chair of the Board of Regents, a position currently held by John W. McCarter of Illinois.[81] Other members of the Board of Regents are three members of the U.S. House of Representatives appointed by the Speaker of the House; three members of the Senate, appointed by the President pro tempore of the Senate; and nine citizen members, nominated by the board and approved by the Congress in a joint resolution signed by the President of the United States.[82] Regents who are senators or representatives serve for the duration of their elected terms, while citizen Regents serve a maximum of two six-year terms. Regents are compensated on a part-time basis. The chief executive officer (CEO) of the Smithsonian is the Secretary, who is appointed by the Board of Regents. The Secretary also serves as secretary to the Board of Regents, but is not a voting member of that body. The Secretary of the Smithsonian has the privilege of the floor at the United States Senate. There have been 12 Secretaries. On September 18, 2013, Secretary G. Wayne Clough announced he would retire in October 2014. The Smithsonian Board of Regents said it has asked regent John McCarter, Jr. to lead a search committee. The search committee will consist of other regents and representatives from Smithsonian museums and centers.[83] On March 10, 2014, the Smithsonian Board of Directors selected Dr. David Skorton, a physician and president of Cornell University as the 13th Secretary of the Smithsonian. Skorton took the reins of the institution on 1 July 2015.[84] Secretaries of the Smithsonian Institution Joseph Henry, 1846–1878 Spencer Fullerton Baird, 1878–1887 Samuel Pierpont Langley, 1887–1906 Charles Doolittle Walcott, 1907–1927 Charles Greeley Abbot, 1928–1944 Alexander Wetmore, 1944–1952 Leonard Carmichael, 1953–1964 Sidney Dillon Ripley, 1964–1984 Robert McCormick Adams, Jr., 1984–1994 Ira Michael Heyman, 1994–1999 Lawrence M. Small, 2000–2007 G. Wayne Clough, 2008–2015[84] David J. Skorton, 2015–present Controversies Enola Gay display See also: Enola Gay exhibition controversy In 1995, controversy arose over the exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum with the display of the Enola Gay, the Superfortress used by the United States to drop the first atomic bomb used in World War II. The American Legion and Air Force Association believed the exhibit put forward only one side of the debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and that it emphasized the effect on victims without discussing its use within the overall context of the war. The Smithsonian changed the exhibit, displaying the aircraft only with associated technical data and without discussion of its historic role in the war. Censorship of "Seasons of Life and Land" In 2003, a National Museum of Natural History exhibit, Subhankar Banerjee's Seasons of Life and Land, featuring photographs of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, was censored and moved to the basement by Smithsonian officials because they feared that its subject matter was too politically controversial.[85] In November 2007, The Washington Post reported internal criticism has been raised regarding the institution's handling of the exhibit on the Arctic. According to documents and e-mails, the exhibit and its associated presentation were edited at high levels to add "scientific uncertainty" regarding the nature and impact of global warming on the Arctic. Acting Secretary of the Smithsonian Cristián Samper was interviewed by the Post, and claimed the exhibit was edited because it contained conclusions that went beyond what could be proven by contemporary climatology.[86] The Smithsonian is now a participant in the U.S. Global Change Research Program.[87] Copyright restrictions The Smithsonian Institution provides access to its image collections for educational, scholarly, and nonprofit uses. Commercial uses are generally restricted unless permission is obtained. Smithsonian images fall into different copyright categories; some are protected by copyright, many are subject to license agreements or other contractual conditions, and some fall into the public domain, such as those prepared by Smithsonian employees as part of their official duties. The Smithsonian's terms of use for its digital content, including images, are set forth on the Smithsonian Web site.[88][89] In April 2006, the institution entered into an agreement of "first refusal" rights for its vast silent and public domain film archives with Showtime Networks, mainly for use on the Smithsonian Channel, a network created from this deal. Critics contend this agreement effectively gives Showtime control over the film archives, as it requires filmmakers to obtain permission from the network to use extensive amounts of film footage from the Smithsonian archives.[90] The Smithsonian contends independent producers continue to have unchanged access to the institution and its collections as they had prior to the agreement.[citation needed] The process to gain access to film at the Smithsonian remains the same.[citation needed] Since January 2006, independent producers have made more than 500 requests to film in the museums and collections or to use archival footage and photos.[citation needed] Ernest L. Crandall Washington, D.C., USA, 1871–1951 (Photographer) Ernest L. Crandall (1871–1951) was an American free-lance professional photographer. He chronicled many of Washington’s important monuments during the early part of the twentieth century. Crandall worked as a photographer in the US Department of Agriculture and the National Park Service between 1914 and 1934. During the 1920s, he was a photographer with the Carnegie Institution of Washington’s Chichen-Itza project in the Yucatan region of Mexico. He also was a member of the team that explored the Mayan ruins at Coba and Okop.
  • Condition: Good
  • Publication Name: National Geographic
  • Publication Year: 1915

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