Besant Programs Esoteric Theosophical Occult Alchemy Metaphysical Blavatsky

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176277816073 Besant Programs Esoteric Theosophical Occult Alchemy Metaphysical Blavatsky. a fantastic vintage collection of theosophy pamphlets Theosophy for beginners by c.w. christie Madras India 1923 Official Program Lily Dale Assembly Season 1930 largest spiritualist assembly in the world theosophical manuals no. vii MANC AND HIS BODIES by Annie Besant there is no religion higher than truth presented to members  on admission to the american theosophical society' the facts about death metropolitan throsophical federation new york 1927 death the great liberator mount vernon lodge postcard american theosopical society (2 different) there is no religion higher than truth card your soulAdyar Day program 1932 world congress of the theosophical society 1929 a message to the members of the theosophical societyfrom an elder brother theosophical questions answered by l.w. rogers 1934 the spirit a lecture by l.w. rogers 1918 reincarnation a christian doctrine the war - and after 
Annie Besant (née Wood; 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a British socialist, theosophist, women's rights activist, writer, orator, educationist, and philanthropist. Regarded as a champion of human freedom, she was an ardent supporter of both Irish and Indian self-rule. She was a prolific author with over three hundred books and pamphlets to her credit.[1] As an educationist, her contributions included being one of the founders of the Banaras Hindu University. In 1867, Annie, at age 20, married Frank Besant, a clergyman, and they had two children. However, Annie's increasingly unconventional religious views led to their legal separation in 1873.[2] She then became a prominent speaker for the National Secular Society (NSS), as well as a writer, and a close friend of Charles Bradlaugh. In 1877 they were prosecuted for publishing a book by birth control campaigner Charles Knowlton. The scandal made them famous, and Bradlaugh was subsequently elected M.P. for Northampton in 1880. Thereafter, she became involved with union actions, including the Bloody Sunday demonstration and the London matchgirls strike of 1888. She was a leading speaker for both the Fabian Society and the Marxist Social Democratic Federation (SDF). She was also elected to the London School Board for Tower Hamlets, topping the poll, even though few women were qualified to vote at that time. In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky, and over the next few years her interest in theosophy grew, whilst her interest in secular matters waned. She became a member of the Theosophical Society and a prominent lecturer on the subject. As part of her theosophy-related work, she travelled to India. In 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu School,[3] and in 1922 she helped establish the Hyderabad (Sind) National Collegiate Board in Mumbai, India.[4] In 1902, she established the first overseas Lodge of the International Order of Co-Freemasonry, Le Droit Humain. Over the next few years she established lodges in many parts of the British Empire. In 1907 she became president of the Theosophical Society, whose international headquarters were, by then, located in Adyar, Madras, (Chennai). She also became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National Congress. When World War I broke out in 1914, she helped launch the Home Rule League to campaign for democracy in India, and dominion status within the British Empire. This led to her election as president of the Indian National Congress, in late 1917. In the late 1920s, Besant travelled to the United States with her protégé and adopted son Jiddu Krishnamurti, who she claimed was the new Messiah and incarnation of Buddha. Krishnamurti rejected these claims in 1929.[5] After the war, she continued to campaign for Indian independence and for the causes of theosophy, until her death in 1933. Contents 1 Early life 2 Birkbeck 3 Reformer and secularist 4 Political activism 5 Theosophy 5.1 Co-freemasonry 5.2 President of Theosophical Society 5.3 "World Teacher" project 6 Home Rule movement 7 Later years and death 8 Descendants 9 Criticism of Christianity 10 Works 11 Recognition in popular media 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Early life St. Margaret's church, Sibsey, where Frank Besant was vicar, 1871–1917 Annie Wood was born in 1847 in London into an upper-middle-class family. She was the daughter of William Burton Persse Wood (1816-1852) and Emily Roche Morris (died 1874). The Woods originated from Devon and her great-uncle was the Whig politician Sir Matthew Wood, 1st Baronet from whom derives the Page Wood baronets. Her father was an Englishman who lived in Dublin and attained a medical degree, having attended Trinity College Dublin. Her mother was an Irish Catholic, from a family of more modest means. Besant would go on to make much of her Irish ancestry and supported the cause of Irish self-rule throughout her adult life. Her cousin Kitty O'Shea (born Katharine Wood) was noted for having an affair with Charles Stewart Parnell, leading to his downfall. Her father died when she was five years old, leaving the family almost penniless. Her mother supported the family by running a boarding house for boys at Harrow School. However, she was unable to support Annie and persuaded her friend Ellen Marryat to care for her. Marryat made sure that she had a good education. Annie was given a strong sense of duty to society and an equally strong sense of what independent women could achieve.[6] As a young woman, she was also able to travel widely in Europe. There she acquired a taste for Roman Catholic colour and ceremony that never left her. In 1867, at age twenty, she married 26-year-old clergyman Frank Besant (1840–1917), younger brother of Walter Besant. He was an evangelical Anglican who seemed to share many of her concerns.[6] On the eve of her marriage, she had become more politicised through a visit to friends in Manchester, who brought her into contact with both English radicals and the Manchester Martyrs of the Irish Republican Fenian Brotherhood,[7] as well as with the conditions of the urban poor. Annie Besant Grave of Frank Besant at Sibsey, where he remained vicar until his death Soon Frank became vicar of Sibsey in Lincolnshire. Annie moved to Sibsey with her husband, and within a few years they had two children, Arthur and Mabel; however, the marriage was a disaster. As Annie wrote in her Autobiography, "we were an ill-matched pair".[8] The first conflict came over money and Annie's independence. Annie wrote short stories, books for children, and articles. As married women did not have the legal right to own property, Frank was able to collect all the money she earned. Politics further divided the couple. Annie began to support farm workers who were fighting to unionise and to win better conditions. Frank was a Tory and sided with the landlords and farmers. The tension came to a head when Annie refused to attend Communion. In 1873 she left him and returned to London. They were legally separated and Annie took her daughter with her. Besant began to question her own faith. She turned to leading churchmen for advice, going to see Edward Bouverie Pusey, one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement within the Church of England. When she asked him to recommend books that would answer her questions, he told her she had read too many already.[9] Besant returned to Frank to make a last unsuccessful effort to repair the marriage. She finally left for London. Birkbeck In the late 1880s she studied at the Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution,[10] where her religious and political activities caused alarm. At one point the Institution's governors sought to withhold the publication of her exam results.[11] Reformer and secularist Annie Besant She fought for the causes she thought were right, starting with freedom of thought, women's rights, secularism, birth control, Fabian socialism and workers' rights. She was a leading member of the National Secular Society alongside Charles Bradlaugh and the South Place Ethical Society.[12] Divorce was unthinkable for Frank, and was not really within the reach of even middle-class people. Annie was to remain Mrs Besant for the rest of her life. At first, she was able to keep contact with both children and to have Mabel live with her; she also got a small allowance from her husband. Once free of Frank Besant and exposed to new currents of thought, she began to question not only her long-held religious beliefs but also the whole of conventional thinking. She began to write attacks on the churches and the way they controlled people's lives. In particular she attacked the status of the Church of England as a state-sponsored faith. Soon she was earning a small weekly wage by writing a column for the National Reformer, the newspaper of the NSS. The NSS argued for a secular state and an end to the special status of Christianity, and allowed her to act as one of its public speakers. Public lectures were very popular entertainment in Victorian times. Besant was a brilliant speaker, and was soon in great demand. Using the railway, she criss-crossed the country, speaking on all of the most important issues of the day, always demanding improvement, reform and freedom. For many years Besant was a friend of the National Secular Society's leader, Charles Bradlaugh. Bradlaugh, a former soldier, had long been separated from his wife; Besant lived with him and his daughters, and they worked together on many projects. He was an atheist and a republican; he was also trying to get elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton. Besant and Bradlaugh became household names in 1877 when they published Fruits of Philosophy, a book by the American birth-control campaigner Charles Knowlton. It claimed that working-class families could never be happy until they were able to decide how many children they wanted. It also suggested ways to limit the size of their families.[13] The Knowlton book was highly controversial, and was vigorously opposed by the Church. Besant and Bradlaugh proclaimed in the National Reformer: We intend to publish nothing we do not think we can morally defend. All that we publish we shall defend.[14] The pair were arrested and put on trial for publishing the Knowlton book. They were found guilty, but released pending appeal. As well as great opposition, Besant and Bradlaugh also received a great deal of support in the Liberal press. Arguments raged back and forth in the letters and comment columns as well as in the courtroom. Besant was instrumental in founding the Malthusian League during the trial, which would go on to advocate for the abolition of penalties for the promotion of contraception.[15] For a time, it looked as though they would be sent to prison. The case was thrown out finally only on a technical point, the charges not having been properly drawn up. The scandal cost Besant custody of her children. Her husband was able to persuade the court that she was unfit to look after them, and they were handed over to him permanently. On 6 March 1881 she spoke at the opening of Leicester Secular Society's new Secular Hall in Humberstone Gate, Leicester. The other speakers were George Jacob Holyoake, Harriet Law and Charles Bradlaugh.[16] Bradlaugh's political prospects were not damaged by the Knowlton scandal and he was elected to Parliament in 1881. Because of his atheism, he asked to be allowed to affirm rather than swear the oath of loyalty. When the possibility of affirmation was refused, Bradlaugh stated his willingness to take the oath. But this option was also challenged. Although many Christians were shocked by Bradlaugh, others (like the Liberal leader Gladstone) spoke up for freedom of belief. It took more than six years before the matter was completely resolved (in Bradlaugh's favour) after a series of by-elections and court appearances. Meanwhile, Besant built close contacts with the Irish Home Rulers and supported them in her newspaper columns during what are considered crucial years, when the Irish nationalists were forming an alliance with Liberals and Radicals. Besant met the leaders of the Irish home rule movement. In particular, she got to know Michael Davitt, who wanted to mobilise the Irish peasantry through a Land War, a direct struggle against the landowners. She spoke and wrote in favour of Davitt and his Land League many times over the coming decades. However, Bradlaugh's parliamentary work gradually alienated Besant. Women had no part in parliamentary politics. Besant was searching for a real political outlet, where her skills as a speaker, writer and organiser could do some real good. In 1893, she was the representative of The Theosophical Society at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago. The World Parliament is famous in India because of Indian monk Swami Vivekanand addressed in the same event and which has received global recognition. In 1895, together with the founder-president of the Theosophical Society, Henry Steel Olcott, as well as Marie Musaeus Higgins and Peter De Abrew, she was instrumental in developing the Buddhist school, Musaeus College, in Colombo in the island Sri Lanka. Political activism For Besant, politics, friendship and love were always closely intertwined. Her decision in favour of Socialism came about through a close relationship with George Bernard Shaw, a struggling young Irish author living in London, and a leading light of the Fabian Society who considered Besant to be "The greatest orator in England". Annie was impressed by his work and grew very close to him too in the early 1880s. It was Besant who made the first move, by inviting Shaw to live with her. This he refused, but it was Shaw who sponsored Besant to join the Fabian Society. In its early days, the society was a gathering of people exploring spiritual, rather than political, alternatives to the capitalist system.[17] Besant began to write for the Fabians. This new commitment – and her relationship with Shaw – deepened the split between Besant and Bradlaugh, who was an individualist and opposed to Socialism of any sort. While he defended free speech at any cost, he was very cautious about encouraging working-class militancy.[18][19] Unemployment was a central issue of the time, and in 1887 some of the London unemployed started to hold protests in Trafalgar Square. Besant agreed to appear as a speaker at a meeting on 13 November. The police tried to stop the assembly, fighting broke out, and troops were called. Many were hurt, one man died, and hundreds were arrested; Besant offered herself for arrest, an offer disregarded by the police.[20] The events created a great sensation, and became known as Bloody Sunday. Besant was widely blamed – or credited – for it. She threw herself into organising legal aid for the jailed workers and support for their families.[21] Bradlaugh finally broke with her because he felt she should have asked his advice before going ahead with the meeting. Another activity in this period was her involvement in the London matchgirls strike of 1888. She was drawn into this battle of the "New Unionism" by a young socialist, Herbert Burrows. He had made contact with workers at Bryant and May's match factory in Bow, London, who were mainly young women and were very poorly paid. They were also prey to industrial illnesses, like the bone-rotting Phossy jaw, which was caused by the chemicals used in match manufacture.[22] Some of the match workers asked for help from Burrows and Besant in setting up a union. Besant met the women and set up a committee, which led the women into a strike for better pay and conditions, an action that won public support. Besant led demonstrations by "match-girls", who were cheered in the streets, and prominent churchmen wrote in their support. In just over a week they forced the firm to improve pay and conditions. Besant then helped them to set up a proper union and a social centre. At the time, the matchstick industry was a very powerful lobby, since electric light was not yet widely available, and matches were an essential commodity; in 1872, lobbyists from the match industry had persuaded the British government to change its planned tax policy. Besant's campaign was the first time anyone had successfully challenged the match manufacturers on a major issue, and was seen as a landmark victory of the early years of British Socialism. During 1884, Besant had developed a very close friendship with Edward Aveling, a young socialist teacher who lived in her house for a time. Aveling was a scholarly figure and it was he who first translated the important works of Marx into English. He eventually went to live with Eleanor Marx, daughter of Karl Marx. Aveling was a great influence on Besant's thinking and she supported his work, yet she moved towards the rival Fabians at that time. Aveling and Eleanor Marx had joined the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and then the Socialist League, a small Marxist splinter group which formed around the artist William Morris. It seems that Morris played a large part in converting Besant to Marxism, but it was to the SDF, not his Socialist League, that she turned in 1888. She remained a member for a number of years and became one of its best speakers. She was still a member of the Fabian Society; neither she nor anyone else seemed to think the two movements incompatible at the time. Soon after joining the Marxists, Besant was elected to the London School Board in 1888.[23] Women at that time were not able to take part in parliamentary politics, but had been brought into the local electorate in 1881. Besant drove about with a red ribbon in her hair, speaking at meetings. "No more hungry children", her manifesto proclaimed. She combined her socialist principles with feminism: "I ask the electors to vote for me, and the non-electors to work for me because women are wanted on the Board and there are too few women candidates." Besant came out on top of the poll in Tower Hamlets, with over 15,000 votes. She wrote in the National Reformer: "Ten years ago, under a cruel law, Christian bigotry robbed me of my little child. Now the care of the 763,680 children of London is placed partly in my hands."[24] Besant was also involved in the London dock strike of 1889, in which the dockers, who were employed by the day, were led by Ben Tillett in a struggle for the "Dockers' Tanner". Besant helped Tillett draw up the union's rules and played an important part in the meetings and agitation which built up the organisation. She spoke for the dockers at public meetings and on street corners. Like the match-girls, the dockers won public support for their struggle, and the strike was won.[25] Theosophy Besant was a prolific writer and a powerful orator.[26] In 1889, she was asked to write a review for the Pall Mall Gazette[27] on The Secret Doctrine, a book by H. P. Blavatsky. After reading it, she sought an interview with its author, meeting Blavatsky in Paris. In this way she was converted to Theosophy. Besant's intellectual journey had always involved a spiritual dimension, a quest for transformation of the whole person. As her interest in theosophy deepened, she allowed her membership of the Fabian Society to lapse (1890) and broke her links with the Marxists. In her Autobiography, Besant follows her chapter on "Socialism" with "Through Storm to Peace", the peace of Theosophy. In 1888, she described herself as "marching toward the Theosophy" that would be the "glory" of her life. Besant had found the economic side of life lacking a spiritual dimension, so she searched for a belief based on "Love". She found this in Theosophy, so she joined the Theosophical Society, a move that distanced her from Bradlaugh and other former activist co-workers.[28] When Blavatsky died in 1891, Besant was left as one of the leading figures in theosophy and in 1893 she represented it at the Chicago World Fair.[29] In 1893, soon after becoming a member of the Theosophical Society she went to India for the first time.[30] After a dispute the American section split away into an independent organisation. The original society, then led by Henry Steel Olcott and Besant, is today based in Chennai, India, and is known as the Theosophical Society Adyar. Following the split Besant devoted much of her energy not only to the society, but also to India's freedom and progress. Besant Nagar, a neighbourhood near the Theosophical Society in Chennai, is named in her honour.[31] Co-freemasonry Besant saw freemasonry, in particular Co-Freemasonry, as an extension of her interest in the rights of women and the greater brotherhood of man and saw co-freemasonry as a "movement which practised true brotherhood, in which women and men worked side by side for the perfecting of humanity. She immediately wanted to be admitted to this organisation", known now as the International Order of Freemasonry for Men and Women, "Le Droit Humain". The link was made in 1902 by the theosophist Francesca Arundale, who accompanied Besant to Paris, along with six friends. "They were all initiated, passed and raised into the first three degrees and Annie returned to England, bearing a Charter and founded there the first Lodge of International Mixed Masonry, Le Droit Humain." Besant eventually became the Order's Most Puissant Grand Commander, and was a major influence in the international growth of the Order.[32] President of Theosophical Society Annie Besant with Henry Olcott (left) and Charles Leadbeater (right) in Adyar, Madras in December 1905 Besant met fellow theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater in London in April 1894. They became close co-workers in the theosophical movement and would remain so for the rest of their lives. Leadbeater claimed clairvoyance and reputedly helped Besant become clairvoyant herself in the following year. In a letter dated 25 August 1895 to Francisca Arundale, Leadbeater narrates how Besant became clairvoyant. Together they clairvoyantly investigated the universe, matter, thought-forms, and the history of mankind, and co-authored a book called Occult Chemistry. In 1906 Leadbeater became the centre of controversy when it emerged that he had advised the practice of masturbation to some boys under his care and spiritual instruction. Leadbeater stated he had encouraged the practice to keep the boys celibate, which was considered a prerequisite for advancement on the spiritual path.[33] Because of the controversy, he offered to resign from the Theosophical Society in 1906, which was accepted. The next year Besant became president of the society and in 1908, with her express support, Leadbeater was readmitted to the society. Leadbeater went on to face accusations of improper relations with boys, but none of the accusations were ever proven and Besant never deserted him.[34] Until Besant's presidency, the society had as one of its foci Theravada Buddhism and the island of Sri Lanka, where Henry Olcott did the majority of his useful work.[35] Under Besant's leadership there was more stress on the teachings of "The Aryavarta", as she called central India, as well as on esoteric Christianity.[36] Besant set up a new school for boys, the Central Hindu College (CHC) at Banaras which was formed on underlying theosophical principles, and which counted many prominent theosophists in its staff and faculty. Its aim was to build a new leadership for India. The students spent 90 minutes a day in prayer and studied religious texts, but they also studied modern science. It took 3 years to raise the money for the CHC, most of which came from Indian princes.[37] In April 1911, Besant met Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and they decided to unite their forces and work for a common Hindu University at Banaras. Besant and fellow trustees of the Central Hindu College also agreed to Government of India's precondition that the college should become a part of the new University. The Banaras Hindu University started functioning from 1 October 1917 with the Central Hindu College as its first constituent college. Blavatsky had stated in 1889 that the main purpose of establishing the society was to prepare humanity for the future reception of a "torch-bearer of Truth", an emissary of a hidden Spiritual Hierarchy that, according to theosophists, guides the evolution of mankind.[38] This was repeated by Besant as early as 1896; Besant came to believe in the imminent appearance of the "emissary", who was identified by theosophists as the so-called World Teacher.[39][40] Thought-form of the music of Charles Gounod, according to Besant and C. W. Leadbeater in Thought-Forms (1901) "World Teacher" project In 1909, soon after Besant's assumption of the presidency, Leadbeater "discovered" fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986), a South Indian boy who had been living, with his father and brother, on the grounds of the headquarters of the Theosophical Society at Adyar, and declared him the probable "vehicle" for the expected "World Teacher".[41] The "discovery" and its objective received widespread publicity and attracted worldwide following, mainly among theosophists. It also started years of upheaval, and contributed to splits in the Theosophical Society and doctrinal schisms in theosophy. Following the discovery, Jiddu Krishnamurti and his younger brother Nityananda ("Nitya") were placed under the care of theosophists and Krishnamurti was extensively groomed for his future mission as the new vehicle for the "World Teacher". Besant soon became the boys' legal guardian with the consent of their father, who was very poor and could not take care of them. However, his father later changed his mind and began a legal battle to regain the guardianship, against the will of the boys.[42] Early in their relationship, Krishnamurti and Besant had developed a very close bond and he considered her a surrogate mother – a role she happily accepted. (His biological mother had died when he was ten years old).[43] In 1929, twenty years after his "discovery", Krishnamurti, who had grown disenchanted with the World Teacher Project, repudiated the role that many theosophists expected him to fulfil. He dissolved the Order of the Star in the East, an organisation founded to assist the World Teacher in his mission, and eventually left the Theosophical Society and theosophy at large.[44] He spent the rest of his life travelling the world as an unaffiliated speaker, becoming in the process widely known as an original, independent thinker on philosophical, psychological, and spiritual subjects. His love for Besant never waned, as also was the case with Besant's feelings towards him;[45] concerned for his wellbeing after he declared his independence, she had purchased 6 acres (2.4 ha) of land near the Theosophical Society estate which later became the headquarters of the Krishnamurti Foundation India . Home Rule movement As early as 1902 Besant had written that "India is not ruled for the prospering of the people, but rather for the profit of her conquerors, and her sons are being treated as a conquered race.". She encouraged Indian national consciousness, attacked caste and child marriage, and worked effectively for Indian education.[46] Along with her theosophical activities, Besant continued to actively participate in political matters. She had joined the Indian National Congress. As the name suggested, this was originally a debating body, which met each year to consider resolutions on political issues. Mostly it demanded more of a say for middle-class Indians in British Indian government. It had not yet developed into a permanent mass movement with local organisation. About this time her co-worker Leadbeater moved to Sydney. In 1914 World War I broke out, and Britain asked for the support of its Empire in the fight against Germany. Echoing an Irish nationalist slogan, Besant declared, "England's need is India's opportunity". As editor of the New India newspaper, she attacked the colonial government of India and called for clear and decisive moves towards self-rule. As with Ireland, the government refused to discuss any changes while the war lasted. Annie Besant in Sydney, 1922 In 1916 Besant launched the All India Home Rule League along with Lokmanya Tilak, once again modelling demands for India on Irish nationalist practices. This was the first political party in India to have regime change as its main goal. Unlike the Congress itself, the League worked all year round. It built a structure of local branches, enabling it to mobilise demonstrations, public meetings and agitations. In June 1917 Besant was arrested and interned at a hill station, where she defiantly flew a red and green flag.[47] The Congress and the Muslim League together threatened to launch protests if she were not set free; Besant's arrest had created a focus for protest.[48] The government was forced to give way and to make vague but significant concessions. It was announced that the ultimate aim of British rule was Indian self-government, and moves in that direction were promised. Besant was freed in September 1917, welcomed by crowds all over India,[49][50] and in December she took over as president of the Indian National Congress for a year. Both Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi spoke of Besant's influence with admiration.[46] After the war, a new leadership of the Indian National Congress emerged around Mahatma Gandhi – one of those who had written to demand Besant's release. He was a lawyer who had returned from leading Asians in a peaceful struggle against racism in South Africa. Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi's closest collaborator, had been educated by a theosophist tutor. The new leadership was committed to action that was both militant and non-violent, but there were differences between them and Besant. Despite her past, she was not happy with their socialist leanings. Until the end of her life, however, she continued to campaign for India's independence, not only in India but also on speaking tours of Britain.[51] In her own version of Indian dress, she remained a striking presence on speakers' platforms. She produced a torrent of letters and articles demanding independence. Later years and death Besant tried as a person, theosophist, and president of the Theosophical Society, to accommodate Krishnamurti's views into her life, without success; she vowed to personally follow him in his new direction although she apparently had trouble understanding both his motives and his new message.[52] The two remained friends until the end of her life. In 1931 she became ill in India.[53] Besant died on 20 September 1933, at age 85, in Adyar, Madras Presidency, British India. Her body was cremated.[54][55] She was survived by her daughter, Mabel. After her death, colleagues Jiddu Krishnamurti, Aldous Huxley, Guido Ferrando, and Rosalind Rajagopal, built the Happy Valley School in California, now renamed the Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in her honour. Descendants This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The subsequent family history became fragmented. A number of Besant's descendants have been traced in detail from her son Arthur Digby's side. Arthur Digby Besant (1869–1960) was President of the Institute of Actuaries, 1924–26. He wrote The Besant Pedigree (1930) and was director of the Theosophical bookstore in London. One of Arthur Digby's daughters was Sylvia Besant, who married Commander Clem Lewis in the 1920s. They had a daughter, Kathleen Mary, born in 1934, who was given away for adoption within three weeks of the birth and had the new name of Lavinia Pollock. Lavinia married Frank Castle in 1953 and raised a family of five of Besant's great-great-grandchildren – James, Richard, David, Fiona and Andrew Castle – the last and youngest sibling being a former British professional tennis player and now television presenter and personality. Criticism of Christianity Christianity: Its Evidences, Its Origin, Its Morality, Its History Author Annie Besant Series The freethinker's text-book Publication date 1876 Preceded by Part I. by Charles Bradlaugh[56]  Original text Christianity: Its Evidences, Its Origin, Its Morality, Its History at Project Gutenberg Besant opined that for centuries the leaders of Christian thought spoke of women as a necessary evil, and that the greatest saints of the Church were those who despised women the most, "Against the teachings of eternal torture, of the vicarious atonement, of the infallibility of the Bible, I leveled all the strength of my brain and tongue, and I exposed the history of the Christian Church with unsparing hand, its persecutions, its religious wars, its cruelties, its oppressions. (Annie Besant, An Autobiography Chapter VII)." In the section named "Its Evidences Unreliable" of her work "Christianity", Besant presents the case of why the Gospels are not authentic: "before about A.D. 180 there is no trace of FOUR gospels among the Christians."[57] Works Besides being a prolific writer, Besant was a "practised stump orator" who gave sixty-six public lectures in one year. She also engaged in public debates.[26] List of Works on Online Books [1] List of Work on Open Library [2] The Political Status of Women (1874)[58] Christianity: Its Evidences, Its Origin, Its Morality, Its History (1876) The Law of Population (1877) My Path to Atheism (1878, 3rd ed 1885) Marriage, As It Was, As It Is, And As It Should Be: A Plea for Reform (1878) The Atheistic Platform: 12 Lectures One by Besant (1884) Autobiographical Sketches (1885) Why I Am a Socialist (1886) Why I Became a Theosophist (1889) The Seven Principles of Man (1892) Bhagavad Gita (translated as The Lord's Song) (1895) Karma (1895) In the Outer Court(1895) The Ancient Wisdom (1897) Dharma (1898) Thought Forms with C. W. Leadbeater (1901) The Religious Problem in India (1901) Thought Power: Its Control and Culture (1901) Esoteric Christianity (1905 2nd ed) A Study in Consciousness: A contribution to the science of psychology. (ca 1907, rpt 1918) [3] Occult Chemistry with C. W. Leadbeater (1908) [4] An Introduction to Yoga (1908) [5] Australian Lectures (1908) Annie Besant: An Autobiography (1908 2nd ed) The Religious Problem in India Lectures on Islam, Jainism, Sikhism, Theosophy (1909) [6] Man and His Bodies (1896, rpt 1911) [7] Elementary Lessons on Karma (1912) A Study in Karma (1912) Initiation: The Perfecting of Man (1912) [8] Man's Life in This and Other Worlds (1913) [9] Man: Whence, How and Whither with C. W. Leadbeater (1913) [10] The Doctrine of the Heart (1920) [11] The Future of Indian Politics 1922 The Life and Teaching of Muhammad (1932) [12] Memory and Its Nature (1935) [13] Various writings regarding Helena Blavatsky (1889–1910) [14] Selection of Pamphlets as follows: [15] "Sin and Crime" (1885) "God's Views on Marriage" (1890) "A World Without God" (1885) "Life, Death, and Immortality" (1886) "Theosophy" (1925?) "The World and Its God" (1886) "Atheism and Its Bearing on Morals" (1887) "On Eternal Torture" (n.d.) "The Fruits of Christianity" (n.d.) "The Jesus of the Gospels and the Influence of Christianity" (n.d.) "The Gospel of Christianity and the Gospel of Freethought" (1883) "Sins of the Church: Threatenings and Slaughters" (n.d.) "For the Crown and Against the Nation" (1886) "Christian Progress" (1890) "Why I Do Not Believe in God" (1887) "The Myth of the Resurrection" (1886) "The Teachings of Christianity" (1887) Indian National Movement The Commonweal (a weekly dealing on Indian national issues)[59] New India (a daily newspaper which was a powerful mouthpiece for 15 years advocating Home Rule and revolutionizing Indian journalism)[59] Recognition in popular media On 1 October 2015, search engine Google commemorated Annie Besant with a Doodle on her 168th birth anniversary. Google commented: "A fierce advocate of Indian self-rule, Annie Besant loved the language, and over a lifetime of vigorous study cultivated tremendous abilities as a writer and orator. She published mountains of essays, wrote a textbook, curated anthologies of classic literature for young adults and eventually became editor of the New India newspaper, a periodical dedicated to the cause of Indian Autonomy".[60] See also Annie Besant School Allahabad History of feminism Order of the Star in the East Theosophy and Christianity Theosophy and visual arts Agni Yoga Alice Bailey Benjamin Creme Helena Roerich Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa (16 December 1875, Sri Lanka–18 June 1953, United States) was a Sri Lankan author, occultist, freemason and theosophist. The fourth president of the Theosophical Society,[1] Jinarajadasa was one of the world's foremost Theosophical authors, having published more than 50 books and more than 1600 articles in periodicals during his life. His interests and writings included religion, philosophy, literature, art, science and occult chemistry. He was also a rare linguist, who had the ability to work in many European languages.[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Personal life 4 Works (selection) 4.1 The K.H. Letters to C.W. Leadbeater 5 Criticism 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Sources 8 External links Early life Jinarajadasa was born on 16 December 1875 in Sri Lanka to a family of Sinhalese parents. He was one of the first students of Ananda College, Colombo. In 1889, when Charles Webster Leadbeater, the first principal of Ananda College was asked by A.P. Sinnett to come back to England to tutor his son, Leadbeater agreed and also brought one of his pupils, Jinarajadasa, to England with him. Thanks to Leadbeater, Jinarajadasa went to St John's College, Cambridge where he studied oriental languages and four years later took his Degree in the Oriental Languages Tripos.[3] Career He then came back to Ceylon and became the vice principal of Ananda College in Colombo. Jinarajadasa returned to Europe, to study at the University of Pavia, Italy. He soon became proficient in Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese. Around 1904 he visited Chicago, where he met and influenced Weller van Hook, the well-known surgeon and author, who then became a theosophist. During his lifetime, Jinarajadasa traveled to many countries despite all the war difficulties of that era for his devoted service to Theosophy.[4] He was one among four Convention Lecturers, including G.S. Arundale, B.P. Wadia, and T. Sadasivier, who spoke in Calcutta at the Forty-Second Anniversary of the Theosophical Society in December, 1917. In his lecture, The Problem of Religion And Philosophy, he stressed the need to serve others, saying “We have a perennial need of God, of understanding the mystery of the I . . . When the heart and brain are ready, the hand will be guided by a Divine Architect to build according to His Plan. Each of you must help in this day to come. Not the smallest child but can help in some tiny action, not the poorest now who cannot heap up wealth of hope for that future. For within us is the Light of the World and the Power of the World –– if only we knew how to find. But the doors of all the treasure-houses will open if we know the right mantra to repeat, the open sesame of this newer day. It is the new word of power: ‘Brother, thou art I.[5] ”He also traveled to South America, where he lectured in Spanish and Portuguese and founded branches of the Theosophical Society (TS). He was the Vice-President of the Theosophical Society from 1921 to 1928. After the death of Dr. Arundale in 1945, Jinarajadasa became president of the Theosophical Society Adyar. In 1949 he founded the School of Wisdom in Adyar, which attracted students from many countries. He was also a Freemason, joining Le Droit Humain also known as Co-Masonry. Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa was the president of Theosophical Society until his death on 18 June 1953 in the United States.[6] Personal life In 1916, Jinarajadasa married the English feminist Miss Dorothy M. Graham, who founded the Women's Indian Association (WIA) in Adyar with Annie Besant in 1917.[7] She accompanied him in his travels around the world for some years. At one stage of his life, he resided in Brazil. By 1953 he declined renomination as president of the Theosophical Society due to poor health and installed Nilakanta Sri Ram as his successor. He visited America where he died on 18 June 1953 at the national headquarters of the Theosophical Society, called “Olcott”. His body was cremated; half of his ashes were sent to Adyar for deposit in the Garden of Remembrance there. The rest were kept at Olcott until the late 1990s, when they were deposited in an American Garden of Remembrance created to receive them. Works (selection) Jinarajadasa wrote many works on Theosophy, Theology, philosophy, literature, art and science. He also participated in Annie Besant's and Charles Leadbeater's researches on Occult Chemistry. In 1913 Jinarajadasa was awarded the Subba Row Medal for his contribution to Theosophical literature.[7] Art and the Emotions, 1922 Art As Will and Idea, 1927 The Bhagavad Gita, 1915 Christ and Buddha, 1908[8] Christ the Logos, 1920 Clairvoyant Investigations, 1947 The Conventions of the Indian Constitution, 1921 Did Madame Blavatsky Forge the Mahatma Letters?, 1934[8] Discourses on the Bhagavad Gita, 1953 (A speech in Bangalore from 1946) The Divine Vision, Three Lectures Delivered in London, 1928[8] The Early Teachings of the Masters 1881-1883, 1923 The Faith That is the Life, 1920 The Flame of Youth, 1931 Flowers and Gardens: A Dream Structure, 1913 First Principles of Theosophy, 1921 The Future of the Theosophical Society, 1931 Gods in Chains, 1929[8] Goethe's Faust, Analysed in a Series of Incidents in Successive Incarnations, 1932 The Heritage of Our Fathers, 1918 How We Remember Our Past Lives, 1915[8] The Ideas of Theosophy In His Name, 1913[8] Is and Is to Be, 1940 K.H. Letters to C.W. Leadbeater, 1941 The Law of Christ, 1924 Lecture Notes, 1930 (cover design by Manishi Dey) Letters of the Masters of Wisdom - First Series, 1919 Letters of the Masters of Wisdom - Second Series, 1926 The Lord's Work, 1917 The Master: Meditations in Verse, 1931 The Mediator and Other Theosophical Essays, 1927[8] The Meeting of the East and the West, 1921[8] The Message of the Future, 1916 The Nature of Mysticism, 1917 The New Humanity of Intuition, 1938' Occult Chemistry, 1908 (editor of 1951 3rd edition)[9] Practical Theosophy, 1918[8] The Real and the Unreal, 1923 The Reign of Law, Buddhist Essay, 1923 Release: A Sequel to the Wonder Child The Religion and Philanthropy of Freemasonry The Ritual of the Mystic Star, 1939 The Seven Veils of Consciousness, 1952 The Smaller Buddhist Catechism, 1914 (jointly authored with C.J. Leadbetter) The Theosophist's Attitude, 1927 (jointly authored with C.J. Leadbetter) Theosophical Outlook, 1919 Theosophy and Reconstruction, 1919 Theosophy and Modern Thought, 1914[8] Unfolding the Intuition, 1936 (with a foreword by Sidney A. Cook) The Way and After: A Theosophist's Viewpoint, 1939 Women in Freemasonry, 1944 The World as Idea, Emotion and Will, 1948[8] Jinarajadasa published more than 1,600 articles in periodicals such as The Adyar Bulletin, The American Theosophist, The Australian ES Bulletin, The Herald of the Star, The Messenger, Sishya (The Student), The Theosophic Messenger, The Theosophist, and World Theosophy. Jinarajadasa was also editor of The Theosophist for three periods. The K.H. Letters to C.W. Leadbeater It is a book compiled by Jinarajadasa; it was first published in 1941.[10] Jinarajadasa wrote that C.W. Leadbeater joined the Theosophical Society in November 1883, and after his contact with Helena Blavatsky in London he decided to become a chela (disciple) of one of the Mahatmas. First Letter from the Master The Rev. C.W. Leadbeater, England, circa 1882. At the beginning of the book Jinarajadasa proclaimed that an incident with receiving certain letters from the Master K.H.[note 1] was very great Leadbeater's success.[note 2] Leadbeater reminisced that he wrote a letter to the Master K.H. In that letter it was said that "his one great wish has been to become chela but it would be almost impossible without going out to India." Then Leadbeater entrusted the letter to a medium William Eglinton[13][14] and his "control" Ernest.[15] He talked later: "I waited for some months, but no reply came, and whenever I went to Eglinton's séances and happened to encounter Ernest I always asked him when I might expect my answer. He invariably said that my letter had been duly delivered, but that nothing had yet been said about an answer, and that he could do no more."[16] Leadbeater received a reply on the morning of October 31, 1884. The letter of the Master K.H. was to be posted in England, on envelope it was typed "Kensington" (it is a postal district in the west of London) and "OC-30-84" (it is the date).[17] Master Kuthumi[note 3] replied in this letter: "Last spring — March 3rd — you wrote a letter to me and entrusted it to 'Ernest'. Tho' the paper itself never reached me — nor was it ever likely to considering the nature of the messenger — its contents have. I did not answer it at that time, but sent you a message through Upasika.[note 4] In that message of yours it was said that, since reading Esot. Bud:[20] and Isis your 'one great wish has been to place yourself under me as a chela, that you may learn more of the truth.' 'I understand from Mr. S.' you went on 'that it would be almost impossible to become a chela without going out to India'. You hoped to be able to do that in a few years, tho' for the present ties of gratitude bind you to remain in this country. Etc. I now answer the above and your other questions. (1) It is not necessary that one should be in India during the seven years of probation. A chela can pass them anywhere. (2) To accept any man as a chela does not depend on my personal will. It can only be the result of one's personal merit and exertions in that direction. Force any one of the 'Masters' you may happen to choose; do good works in his name and for the love of mankind; be pure and resolute in the path of righteousness (as laid out in our rules); be honest and unselfish; forget your Self but to remember the good of other people — and you will have forced that 'Master' to accept you. So much for candidates during the periods of the undisturbed progress of your Society. There is something more to be done, however, when theosophy, the Cause of Truth, is, as at the present moment on its stand for life or death before the tribunal of public opinion — that most flippantly cruel, prejudiced and unjust of all tribunals. There is also the collective karma of the caste you belong to[note 5][note 6] — to be considered. It is undeniable that the cause you have at heart is now suffering owing to the dark intrigues, the base conspiracy of the Christian clergy and missionaries against the Society. They will stop before nothing to ruin the reputation of the Founders. Are you willing to atone for their sins? Then go to Adyar for a few months. 'The ties or gratitude' will not be severed, nor even become weakened for an absence of a few months if the step be explained plausibly to your relative. He who would shorten the years of probation has to make sacrifices for theosophy. Pushed by malevolent hands to the very edge of a precipice, the Society needs every man and woman strong in the cause of truth. It is by doing noble actions and not by only determining that they shall be done that the fruits of the meritorious actions are reaped. Like the 'true man' of Carlyle who is not to be seduced by ease — 'difficulty, abnegation, martyrdom, death are the allurements that act' during the hours of trial on the heart of a true chela. You ask me — 'what rules I must observe during this time of probation, and how soon I might venture to hope that it could begin'. I answer: you have the making of your own future, in your own hands as shown above, and every day you may be weaving its woof. If I were to demand that you should do one thing or the other, instead of simply advising, I would be responsible for every effect that might flow from the step and you acquire but a secondary merit. Think, and you will see that this is true. So cast the lot yourself into the lap of Justice, never fearing but that its response will be absolutely true. Chelaship is an educational as well as probationary stage and the chela alone can determine whether it shall end in adeptship or failure. Chelas from a mistaken idea of our system too often watch and wait for orders, wasting precious time which should be taken up with personal effort. Our cause needs missionaries, devotees, agents, even martyrs perhaps. But it cannot demand of any man to make himself either. So now choose and grasp your own destiny, and may our Lord's the Tathâgata's memory[note 7] aid you to decide for the best.[24] −K.H." In the book Jinarajadasa gave about thirty detailed commentaries to the statements of the first Master's letter. Second letter from the Master Facsimile (a fragment) of the first letter from the Master K.H. Jinarajadasa stated that Leadbeater wrote "his second letter to the Master K.H., in reply to the Master's communication, and took it with him to London. Here we have the story of the next events in this striking drama from Mr. Leadbeater himself."[25] Leadbeater was reminiscing that he wished to say in answer to this that "his circumstances were such that it would be impossible for him to come to Adyar for three months, and then return to the work in which he was then engaged; but that he was perfectly ready to throw up that work altogether and to devote his life absolutely to Master's service". Ernest having so conspicuously failed him, he knew of no way to get this message to the Master but to take it to Blavatsky,[note 8] and as she was to leave England on the following day for India, Leadbeater rushed up to London to see her.[27] Leadbeater talked that "it was with difficulty that he induced her to read the letter, as she said very decidedly that such communications were intended only for the recipient". He was obliged to insist, however, and at last she read it and asked him what he wished to say in reply. He answered to the above effect, and asked her how this information could be conveyed to the Master. She replied that he knew it already, referring of course to the exceedingly close relation in which she stood with him, so that whatever was within her consciousness was also within his when he wished it.[16] Leadbeater talked: "She then told me to wait by her, and not to leave her on any account. I waited patiently all through the afternoon and evening, and even went with her quite late at night to Mrs. Oakley's house, where a number of friends were gathered to say farewell Madame Blavatsky sat in an easy chair by the fireside, talking brilliantly to those who were present, and rolling one of her eternal cigarettes, when suddenly her right hand was jerked out towards the fire in a very peculiar fashion, and lay palm upwards. She looked down at it in surprise, as I did myself, for I was standing close to her, leaning with an elbow on the mantelpiece; and several of us saw quite clearly a sort of whitish mist form in the palm of her hand and then condense into a piece of folded paper, which she at once handed to me, saying, 'There is your answer'."[16][14] Every one in the room crowded round, of course, but H.P.B. sent Leadbeater away outside to read it, saying that he must not let anyone see its contents. The letter[note 9] read: Facsimile (a fragment) of the second letter from the Master K.H. "Since your intuition led you in the right direction and made you understand that it was my desire you should go to Adyar immediately, I may say more. The sooner you go the better. Do not lose one day more than you can help. Sail on the 5th if possible. Join Upasika at Alexandria.[14] Let no one know that you are going, and may the blessing of our Lord[note 10] and my poor blessing shield you from every evil in your new life.[note 11] Greeting to you, my new chela.[29] −K.H." Two brief messages from the Master The author wrote that during the trip from Ismailia to Cairo, Blavatsky received a precipitated message[note 12] from the Master K.H., in which there was some words for Leadbeater: "Tell Leadbeater that I am satisfied with his zeal and devotion."[31][32][33][14] In 1886 at Ceylon Leadbeater became first principal of the Buddhist High School (today Ananda College).[34][note 13] In this time at Colombo he received from Blavatsky a letter containing Master's addendum which was precipitated during passing through the post. The Master K.H. said in the addendum that he is "pleased with" Leadbeater.[35][36] Criticism His books on Theosophy were negatively reviewed by scientists. Science writer Hugh S. R. Elliot mocked Jinarajadasa's belief that every genus and species has a "group soul". Elliot noted that "for wherever a difficulty occurs, the author invents a spook to account for any process he cannot understand."[37] Louis William Rogers (May 28, 1859 – April 18, 1953), commonly known as "L.W.," was an American teacher, railway brakeman, trade union functionary, socialist political activist, and newspaper editor. Rogers is best remembered in this context as one of the key officials of the American Railway Union jailed in conjunction with the Pullman Strike of 1894. After more than two decades in and around the labor movement, Rogers shifted his activity to mysticism as a prominent lecturer, writer, and long-time President of the Theosophical Society in America. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early years 1.2 American Railway Union activities 1.3 Later labor activism 1.4 Theosophy 1.5 Death and legacy 2 References 3 Works 4 Further reading 5 External links Biography Early years Louis William Rogers was born in the state of Iowa in the Midwestern United States on May 28, 1859. Trained as a teacher, Rogers taught in the public schools of Iowa and Kansas for a period of five years, beginning late in the 1870s.[1] Rogers later went to work as a brakeman, a crew member of a locomotive train who helped regulate the speed through the manual application of brakes.[1] He worked across a number of midwestern railways, including the Kansas City, Springfield & Memphis, the Wabash & Western, the Santa Fe, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy.[2] Rogers was fired from his position on the latter road during the Burlington railroad strike of 1888, when he supported the locomotive engineers striking the road.[2] Following his dismissal Rogers toured the Burlington route engaging in public speeches on behalf of the strikers, traveling from Illinois all the way to Colorado on his mission.[2] Leaving actual railway work after his dismissal from the Burlington & Quincy, Rogers launched his first newspaper, the Railroad Patriot in St. Joseph, Missouri.[1] The paper proved to be short-lived, terminating publication the following year.[1] With his newspaper having folded, in 1889 Rogers moved to the state of Colorado, where he first became active in the Brotherhood of Railroad Brakemen (BRB), known from 1890 as the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen (BRT).[1] He edited two short-lived newspapers in Colorado, the Denver Patriot and the Vona Herald" as the 1880s came to a close.[2] In September 1889, Rogers was chosen as a delegate to the national convention of the BRB, which selected him as editor of the official organ of the union, the Railroad Brakemen's Journal.[2] He continued in this capacity until the end of 1892.[3] In the 1880s Rogers also became a public lecturer on Freethought and its underlying philosophical doctrine of Rationalism.[1] Early in the 1890s Rogers returned to the Midwest, moving first to Galesburg, Illinois, then to Chicago, and finally in 1892 to Oshkosh, Wisconsin.[1] There Rogers established a new newspaper, the Age of Labor, which he published and edited until its 1893 merger with The Labor Advocate, one of the prominent labor newspapers of the day.[1] In 1893 Rogers helped to establish the Wisconsin State Federation of Labor.[1] American Railway Union activities L.W. Rogers with his fellow officers of the American Railway Union: Elliott, Keliher, Hogan, Burns, Goodwin, and Debs. McHenry County Courthouse and Jail in Woodstock, Illinois as they appear today. As a veteran trade unionist and railway worker, Rogers found the 1894 establishment of the American Railway Union (ARU) by former Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen official Eugene V. Debs to be irresistible — an attempt to create an industrial union joining workers in the myriad of railway crafts into a centralized and therefore powerful organization. Rogers became active in the ARU, was named to the organization's 7 member Executive Board, and was appointed editor of the organization's weekly newspaper, Railway Times.[1] This position as an ARU executive put Rogers in harm's way, however, as a victim of the process set in motion when the U.S. government sought to end the bitter 1894 Pullman Strike launched by the ARU by means of judicial injunction. On July 2, 1894, United States Attorney General Richard Olney and his assistant Edwin Walker instructed Chicago US Attorney Thomas M. Milchrist to file a bill in equity with the combined US District and Circuit Courts summarizing the harm allegedly done to the railroads and to commerce by the ARU strike.[4] District Court Judge Peter S. Grosscup and Circuit Court Judge William A. Woods actively worked with the petitioner to shape and refine the injunction request, which was granted.[5] The judges on that same day ordered that 10,000 copies of their newly granted injunction be printed and distributed by federal marshals along the striking railroad lines.[6] The ARU was thereby ordered to cease and desist interfering with or hindering trains on any involved railroad or any train carrying U.S. Mail.[6] When the strike was not terminated two weeks after issuance of the injunction, the government returned to court charging that ARU head Gene Debs, Vice President George W. Howard, Secretary Sylvester Keliher, and Editor Rogers were in contempt of court for failing to abide by the injunction.[7] This July 17 hearing did not actually find the four to be in contempt, but nevertheless presiding judge William H. Seaman ordered the defendants to be temporarily held pending another hearing on July 23.[8] Bail was set at $3,000 each.[8] Rogers and his three ARU associates surrendered to authorities the same afternoon that the so-called "body attachment order" was issued.[8] To the surprise of contemporary observers, all four ARU officials waived the right to post bail and were immediately jailed.[8] Rogers later recalled that the substantial amount set for bail was not the cause of this decision, declaring, "If it was $2, I'd go to jail. This is a mighty test between labor and capital, and we will fight it to the finish."[8] Owing to an indefinite end to the period of incarceration, this decision was quietly reversed on July 25, 1894, when bail was posted and Debs, Rogers and the other ARU leaders freed from the Cook County Jail.[9] Trial was set to begin on September 5.[9] On December 14, 1894, fully three months after the trial of the ARU had been held, Judge Woods finally issued a lengthy ruling. Wood found the union and its leaders guilty of having conducted an illegal strike in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.[10] Debs was sentenced to 6 months in jail as leader of the ARU, while Rogers and the other defendants in the case were sentenced to terms of 3 months.[11] These sentences were not to be served in Chicago's Cook County Jail, but rather in McHenry County Jail in neighboring Woodstock, Illinois.[11] These sentences were served, starting in June 1895, with Rogers and the other 5 members of the ARU Executive Board gaining their release on August 22.[12] Debs was released three months later. Additional civil penalties were assessed against the union. Later labor activism Upon his release, the ARU having been effectively crushed in the failed Pullman strike, Rogers moved to Pueblo, Colorado, where he worked as an organizer for the American Federation of Labor.[1] He also edited yet another labor newspaper in 1896, the Industrial Advocate.[1] With the launch of the Social Democratic Party of America in 1897, an organization springing in large part from activists loyal to Gene Debs and his ARU, Rogers became involved in the affairs of that organization. He returned to Chicago to edit the new political party's official organ, The Social Democrat for a time, and helped to manage the massive speaking tours of Debs, one of the renowned orators of the day, for the next two years.[1] While remaining involved in socialist politics, Rogers remained a participant in the economic labor movement as well, serving as President of the Michigan Federation of Labor from 1898 to 1899.[1] Theosophy In the 20th Century, Rogers turned his attention to a new interest, mysticism and theosophy. In 1903 Rogers joined the Theosophical Society in America (TSA).[13] Rogers was soon absorbed by the Theosophical movement, lecturing extensively and publishing numerous books and pamphlets on reincarnation, life after death, karma, and sundry matters of philosophical idealism. As one of the most prominent American exponents of esoteric mysticism, Rogers would be elected Vice President of the TSA in 1918, serving in that capacity until 1920, when he would ascend to the Presidency of that organization.[1] Rogers would remain as President of the Theosophical Society for more than a decade, standing down in 1931.[1] Following his time at the helm of the TSA, Rogers served as the editor of two of the organization's periodicals — Ancient Wisdom, which he edited from 1935 to 1936, and The Voice, from 1951 to 1952.[1] Death and legacy Louis Rogers died on April 18, 1953, in Santa Barbara, California. References  Kaufman, Stuart B.; Albert, Peter J.; Palladino, Grace, eds. (1991). The Samuel Gompers Papers: Volume 4: A National Labor Movement Takes Shape, 1895-98. Urbana, IL: Illinois University Press. pp. 547–548.  Railway News Reporter, Dec. 1890, quoted in "L.W. Rogers". Railroad Trainmen's Journal. Vol. 8 no. 12. December 1892. pp. 878–879.  "L.W. Rogers". Railroad Trainmen's Journal. Vol. 8 no. 12. December 1892. pp. 878–879.  Papke 1999, p. 40.  Papke 1999, pp. 40-41.  Papke 1999, p. 41.  Papke 1999, p. 42.  Papke 1999, p. 44.  Constantine 1990, p. 72.  Papke 1999, pp. 49-50.  Papke 1999, p. 50.  Constantine 1990, p. 98, fn. 9.  Bonnell, Robert; Kreeger-Bonnell, Leatrice (November–December 2004). "Memories of L.W. Rogers". Quest. Vol. 92 no. 6. pp. 224–226. Constantine, J. Robert, ed. (1990). Letters of Eugene V. Debs: Volume 1, 1874-1912. Urbana, IL: Illinois University Press. Papke, David Ray (1999). The Pullman Case: The Clash of Labor and Capital in Industrial America. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. Works "Will White Slavery Be Established?" Railway Carmen's Journal, vol. 3, whole no. 26 (May 1893), pp. 267–269. The Evidence for Theosophy: A Lecture. Harrogate: Theosophical Publishing Committee, 1906. The Occultism in Shakespeare's Plays. New York: Theosophical Book Co., 1909. Occultism as a Factor in Civilization: A Lecture on the Two Phases of Human Evolution Represented in the Civilization of the Occident and the Orient. Ridgewood, NJ: Theosophical Book Company, 1910. The Hidden Side of Evolution: A Lecture on the Reasonableness of the Existence of a Spiritual Hierarchy and the Guidance of Human Evolution. Chicago: L.W. Rogers, n.d. [c. 1910s]. What Theosophy Is. Chicago: National Publicity Department, Theosophical Society, 1910. Soul Powers and Possibilities: A Lecture on Some of the Methods of Nature in Evolving Latent Powers and Faculties in Human Beings. Los Angeles: Theosophical Book Concern, 1910. Karma: Nature's Law of Justice: A Lecture on the Law of Cause and Effect as Operating in Some of the Affairs of Love. Los Angeles: Theosophical Book Concern, n.d. [c. 1910s]. Hints to Young Students of Occultism. Los Angeles: Theosophical Book Concern, 1915. The Inspired Life. Los Angeles: L.W. Rogers, 1915. Self Development and the Way to Power. Los Angeles: L.W. Rogers, 1916. Elementary Theosophy. Los Angeles: Theosophical Book Concern, 1917. The Life Sublime. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., 1917. Reincarnation from the Scientific Viewpoint: A Lecture. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., 1917. Reincarnation: Do We Life on Earth Again? Chicago : National Publicity Dept., Theosophical Society, 1917. The Logic of Reincarnation: A Lecture. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., 1918. Beyond the Border: A Lecture. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., 1918. Occultism as a Factor in Civilization: A Lecture. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., 1918. Scientific Evidence of Future Life: A Lecture. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., 1918. The Invisible World About Us: A Lecture on the Unseen Regions Beyond the Grasp of the Physical Senses and the Life We Live After Bodily Death. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., 1918. Australian War Speeches and the Soldier Dead. Chicago: Theosophical Book Co., c. 1918. Dreams and Premonitions. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1923. Theosophical Questions Answered. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1924. Gods in the Making, and Other Lectures. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1925. The Purpose of Life, and Other Lectures. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1925. The Soldier Dead; and A Scientific Religion. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1925. Universal Brotherhood. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1925. Hints to Students of Occultism. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1931. The Coming Civilization. Chicago: Theo Book Co., 1934. Olcott Manual: First Series: Theosophy, Religion, Science, Philosophy. With Annie Besant. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Press, 1934. Reincarnation, and Other Lectures. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Press, n.d. [1940s]. The Ghosts in Shakespeare: A Study of the Occultism in the Shakespeare Plays. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Press, 1949. Man: An Embryo God, and Other Lectures. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Press, 1950. Karma: The Law of Human Destiny. New York : Philosophers Book Shop, n.d. George Sydney Arundale (1 December 1878 in Surrey, England — 12 August 1945 in Adyar, India) was a Theosophist, Freemason, president of the Theosophical Society Adyar and A bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church. He was the husband of the celebrated Indian dancer Rukmini Devi Arundale. Contents 1 Early life 2 India 3 Marriage 4 Career 5 Works 6 References 7 External links Early life Arundale lost his mother at a young age and was adopted by his aunt, Francesca Arundale, a wealthy Theosophist. Initially, he was privately tutored by Charles Webster Leadbeater. Later, he moved with Francesca Arundale to Germany, where he went to school at the Gelehrte Gymnasium, Wiesbaden. Returning eventually to England, he received a master's degree from St John's College, Cambridge.[1] His entire childhood was thus spent under the influence of his aunt, who was a committed and active Theosophist. Under her influence he also became one when he was a youth. India Another major centre of the society was Varanasi, a city held holy in Indian spiritualism. In 1902 Arundale and his aunt moved to Varanasi, where he took a position as history teacher at the Central Hindu College (CHC). In 1909, he was appointed its principal. In 1912 Arundale gave a speech in Adyar to the Theosophical Society which inspired the founding of St Christopher School in Letchworth Garden City, where it still operates under its founding principles. Annie Besant arrives in Charing Cross Station, London with Jiddu Krishnamurti, his younger brother Nityananda, and George Arundale, prominent Theosophist and tutor to the boys. (Picture and caption appear on page 84 of Krishnamurti: The Years of Awakening by Mary Lutyens) During the early 20th-century, many Theosophists believed in the imminent appearance of a messianic entity, the so-called Maitreya or World Teacher. Around this time, a young boy named Jiddu Krishnamurti was identified by a leading Thesophist Charles Leadbeatter as being the probable "vehicle" of the expected Messiah (Krishnamurti later repudiated the idea). Arundale was selected as one of Krishnamurti's private tutors. He was a firm believer in the Coming of the World Teacher, and in late 1910 formed a clandestine society, the Order of the Rising Sun (later renamed Order of the Star in the East), which was intended to further this cause. Most of the recruits were students and staff at the CHC. There was great commotion when the existence and the activities of the society eventually became public; following opposition to the order by the school's Trustees and administrators, in 1913 Arundale and other staff members resigned their positions and left the school. After a holiday in England, he returned to India to devote himself to the activities of the Theosophical Society. He and his aunt settled at the society's sprawling campus at Adyar in Madras. The Indian Independence Movement was picking up pace during these years, as was a revival of interest and pride in the ancient culture and philosophies of India. The Theosophical Society was supportive of both these currents. In 1917, he was one of a group of Theosophists who, along with Annie Besant, organized the National University of India at Chennai, near the headquarters of the society. Rabindranath Tagore became the first chancellor of the university. In June the same year, Arundale was arrested along with Besant and Bahman Pestonji Wadia by the British authorities for having become involved in the Indian Independence Movement. Part of a series on Theosophy Theosophicalsealfrench.svg Topics vte Marriage During his years in Adyar, Arundale came into contact with the family of Nilakanta Sastri, a fellow Theosophist, and fell in love with his daughter, Rukmini. This was considered scandalous: Rukmini belonged to a Hindu family orthodox enough to disapprove of Sastri's involvement with the Theosophists, whom they regarded as a bizarre quasi-Christian sect; there were considerations of race, religion and cultural background; and Rukmini was too young to be Arundale's wife, being twenty-six years younger than he was. Not withstanding these considerations and the uproar raised by Rukmini's family, they were married in 1920, when Rukmini turned sixteen and he was forty-two. Arundale mentored Rukmini and encouraged her to develop her interest in classical dance. Rukmini went on to being instrumental in rejuvenating the Bharatanatyam style of classical dance. Accordingly, it is as the husband of Rukmini Devi Arundale that George Arundale is best known in India today. Career Following his wedding, he deemed it best to reside outside Chennai for a few years and accepted an offer from the Maharaja of Indore in central India to serve as the Commissioner of Education of that state. One of his initiatives in Indore was to open a museum known as Navaratna Mandir which contained the biographies and memorabilia of great people from around the world to serve as an inspiration for young students. This became the precursor to the Central Museum in Indore. He continued to devote much of his time to the activities of the Theosophical Society. In 1924, his aunt died in Adyar and he inherited a considerable fortune. In 1926, he became bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church, a theosophical body with no connection to Roman Catholicism. The same year, he was appointed General Secretary of the Theosophical Society in Australia and moved to that country with his wife. One of their co-passengers on the voyage to Australia was the ballet dancer Anna Pavlova, who quickly became a friend of the Arundales. When Rukmini expressed admiration for Pavlova's art and the desire to learn from her, the latter advised her to look instead to the classical traditions of India and work towards their revival. Rukmini took her advise to heart and later became the doyenne of the revival of Bharatanatyam in India. In 1934, George Arundale became president of the Theosophical Society Adyar. The same year, he founded the Besant Memorial School within the Society's campus. He later prevailed on Maria Montessori to come and take charge of the school. Montessori came to Adyar in 1939 and worked as a teacher at this school for three years, influencing the institution greatly. In 1936, the Arundales founded Kalakshetra, a now venerable institution devoted to researching and teaching Indian classical dance. Until 1948, Kalakshetra was located within the sprawling campus of the Theosophical Society at Adyar. Arundale became a Freemason in 1902 and remained one to the end of his days. He was also a member of Le Droit Humain, and worked for the World Federation of Young Theosophists. In the last decade of his life, he wrote several books and monographs regarding Theosophy. He died peacefully in 1945 at his residence in Adyar. Works Freedom and friendship. Theosophical Publishing House, Madras 1935. Kundalini, an occult experience. Theosophical Publishing House, Madras 1938. Mount Everest, its spiritual attainment. Theosophical Press, Wheaton 1933. Nirvana, A Study In Synthetic Consciousness. Theosophical Press, Chicago 1926. The Lotus Fire, A Study in Symbolic Yoga. Theosophical Publishing House, Madras 1939. Thoughts on 'At The Feet of the Master'. Theosophical Publishing House (American Branch), Hollywood 1919. The Theosophy Society – Adyar is the name of a section of the Theosophical Society founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and others in 1882. In that same year, its headquarters moved with Blavatsky and president Henry Steel Olcott from New York to Adyar, an area of Chennai, India. The designation 'Adyar' is added to make it clear that this is the Theosophical Society headquartered there, after the American section and some other lodges separated from it in 1895, under William Quan Judge.[1] The US National Section of this organization is called the Theosophical Society in America located in Wheaton, Illinois. Contents 1 The garden 2 Founders 3 Aims and ideals 3.1 Monastic/Non-monastic 3.2 General philosophical outlook 3.3 Spiritual discipline 3.4 Administration 4 International Presidents 5 Activities 5.1 Religion & spirituality 5.2 Social field 5.3 Cultural field 5.4 Besant Scout Camping Centre 5.5 Relief activities 5.6 Province of its influence 5.7 Theosophical Society and Jiddu Krishnamurti 6 Publications 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 External links The garden Theosophical Society, Adyar, India, in 1890 Known as the "Huddleston Gardens", the Theosophical Society garden lies on the south bank of the Adyar River and covers 260 acres. The garden has migratory birds, fruit bats, snakes, jackals, wild cats, mongooses, hares, and a variety of spiders. Trees include the rare mahogany and other trees from across the globe. The garden also has a 450-year-old banyan tree, which is known locally as Adyar aala maram, whose aerial roots cover some 60,000 sq m. The main trunk fell under its own weight in 1996.[2] Founders H. P. Blavatsky standing behind Henry Steel Olcott (middle, seated) and Damodar Mavalankar (seated to his left). Bombay, 1881 H. P. Blavatsky, Henry Steel Olcott, William Quan Judge and others founded the Theosophical Society on 17 November 1875 in New York City. The American section split off with William Quan Judge as its leader. Henry Steel Olcott remained president until his death in 1907. Aims and ideals To form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color. To encourage the study of Comparative Religion, Philosophy and Science. To investigate unexplained laws of Nature and the powers latent in man. Monastic/Non-monastic The Theosophical Society is open to anybody who supports its three objects, regardless of belief, social custom or marriage status. Celibacy is neither encouraged nor discouraged, each member being free to decide his/her own way of life. Colonel Olcott in Adyar, 1903 General philosophical outlook Universal Brotherhood Belief in theory of Karma Belief in Reincarnation There exists a Consciousness (Logos), Universal and Individual Immortality of Man Spiritual discipline The practice of brotherhood regardless of race, creed, sex, color, or any other difference is recommended. Nothing is mandatory. Members are free to have any or no spiritual practice at all. Administration The organization has a highly autonomous setup in that lodges and sections are fully autonomous. The President gets involved in National Section matters only when there is some dispute between them. Otherwise the President does not interfere in the matters of the sections or lodges. The President is nominated by the members of the General Council and then elected by members all over the world. The President holds office for seven-year period. The Vice-President acts on behalf of the President as necessary and assists him or her in various ways. The Secretary handles worldwide correspondence, maintains records including statistics of the worldwide membership of the Society, its Lodges and Sections, and is responsible for producing an annual report. He/she is also the Secretary of the General Council and the Executive Committee of the Society. This Committee, which meets a number of times each year, implements the decisions of the General Council and makes financial and administrative decisions relating to the Society's Headquarters. The Treasurer is responsible for the finances of the Society and prepares an annual financial report. Locally, members are organised in lodges. When a country has at least seven lodges, these can be gathered in a national section. Lodges and sections have a democratic organisation in which chairperson, secretary, treasurer and optional other officers are elected. Similarly, officers of the national sections are directly elected by the members of that section in a business meeting. International Presidents Henry Steel Olcott (1875 to 1907). Annie Besant (1907 to 1933). George Arundale (1934 to 1945). Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa (1946 to 1953). Nilakanta Sri Ram (1953 to 1972). John Coats (1972 to 1980). Radha Burnier (1980 to 2013). Tim Boyd (2014 to ...) Activities Emblem of Theosophical Society Adyar Religion & spirituality The Theosophical Society is organised in lodges and national sections. These organise meetings for religious study and lectures. Members individually practice any kind of meditation or other spiritual practice they choose. Social field The Olcott Education Society The Olcott Memorial School The Olcott Memorial High School The Theosophical Order of Service Olcott Memorial High School provides free education, uniforms, books, and two daily meals to impoverished rural children in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.[3] Cultural field Theosophical Publishing House Besant Scout Camping Centre Dr. Arundale, Provincial Scout Commissioner and President of Theosophical Society after Dr. Besant, set aside 10 acres of wooded area in the Olcott Gardens (part of TS) and named it Besant Scout Camping Centre (BSCC) in memory of the founder. Young Scouts and Guides frequent this on weekend for camping for various skill development and competitions amongst themselves. Relief activities When a Tsunami hit South India on 26 December 2004, it affected many of the people living near the Adyar-compound. The Theosophical Society, through the Theosophical Order of Service, helped the people survive both in the immediate aftermath and later. Similar activities were undertaken after the hurricane that destroyed much of New Orleans in 2005. Province of its influence The influence of the Theosophical Society has been major, especially considering its small size. The new age movement reflected many of its main characteristics, especially holism and eclecticism. In Modern Art, the artists Kandinsky and Mondriaan were both influenced by theosophy. Theosophical Society and Jiddu Krishnamurti The leadership of the Theosophical Society at Adyar was responsible for promoting young Jiddu Krishnamurti as the new "World Teacher" during the first few decades of the 20th century. Charles Webster Leadbeater, one of the Society's leaders at the time, had "discovered" fourteen-year-old Krishnamurti in 1909, and considered him the likely "vehicle" for the expected reappearance of the Maitreya. However, as a young man in 1929, Krishnamurti disavowed his expected "mission" and disassociated himself from the Theosophical Society and its doctrines and practices. Over the next six decades he pursued an independent course, becoming widely known as an original, influential thinker and speaker on philosophical and religious subjects.[4] Publications Part of a series on Theosophy Theosophicalsealfrench.svg Topics vte Magazines Brahmavidya – Adyar Library Bulletin The Theosophist – English monthly Current Issue Adyar Newsletter – quarterly journal Wake Up India – quarterly journal The Theosophical Digest – quarterly journal Books The Key to Theosophy – H. P. Blavatsky An Outline of Theosophy – C. W. Leadbeater The Ancient Wisdom – Annie Besant At the Feet of the Master – Alcyone First Principles of Theosophy – C. Jinarajadasa Light on the Path – Mabel Collins Seven Great Religions – Annie Besant Quest Books is the imprint of the Theosophical Publishing House, the publishing arm of the Theosophical Society in America (Wheaton, IL) branch of the International Theosophical Society Adyar. Internet maillist – theos-talk – at www.groups.yahoo.com. A very active and independent maillist which has no official connection with any organization; it is a valuable source for up-to-date information on all matters relating to theosophy and TS Adyar and others. The archives are also public. Internet Community – www.theosophy.net A new public community website set up by a few interested theosophists. It is totally independent and is not funded or directly or indirectly controlled or moderated by any theosophy organization. See also flag India portal Survey of Hindu organisations Anthroposophy (Rudolf Steiner) J. Krishnamurti Theosophy Adyar Library Edmonton Theosophical Society Theosophy is a religion established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian immigrant Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion as both a new religious movement and as part of the occultist stream of Western esotericism, it draws upon both older European philosophies such as Neoplatonism and Asian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. As presented by Blavatsky, Theosophy teaches that there is an ancient and secretive brotherhood of spiritual adepts known as the Masters, who—although found across the world—are centered in Tibet. These Masters are alleged by Blavatsky to have cultivated great wisdom and supernatural powers, and Theosophists believe that it was they who initiated the modern Theosophical movement through disseminating their teachings via Blavatsky. They believe that these Masters are attempting to revive knowledge of an ancient religion once found across the world and which will again come to eclipse the existing world religions. Theosophical groups nevertheless do not refer to their system as a "religion". Theosophy preaches the existence of a single, divine Absolute. It promotes an emanationist cosmology in which the universe is perceived as outward reflections from this Absolute. Theosophy teaches that the purpose of human life is spiritual emancipation and claims that the human soul undergoes reincarnation upon bodily death according to a process of karma. It promotes values of universal brotherhood and social improvement, although it does not stipulate particular ethical codes. Theosophy was established in New York City in 1875 with the founding of the Theosophical Society by Blavatsky and two Americans, Henry Olcott and William Quan Judge. In the early 1880s, Blavatsky and Olcott relocated to India, where they established the Society's headquarters at Adyar, Tamil Nadu. Blavatsky described her ideas in two books, Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine. She sought to produce purportedly supernatural phenomena to support her claims regarding the Masters, although was repeatedly accused of fraudulently doing so. Following Blavatsky's death in 1891, there was a schism in the Society, with Judge leading the Theosophical Society in America to split from the international organization. Under Judge's successor Katherine Tingley, a Theosophical community named Lomaland was established in San Diego. The Adyar-based Society was later taken over by Annie Besant, under whom it grew to its largest extent during the late 1920s, before going into decline. The Theosophical movement still exists, although in much smaller form than in its heyday. Theosophy played a significant role in bringing knowledge of South Asian religions to Western countries, as well as in encouraging cultural pride in various South Asian nations. A variety of prominent artists and writers have also been influenced by Theosophical teachings. Theosophy has an international following, and during the 20th century had tens of thousands of adherents. Theosophical ideas have also exerted an influence on a wide range of other esoteric movements and philosophies, among them Anthroposophy, the Church Universal and Triumphant, and the New Age. Contents 1 Definition 1.1 Etymology 2 Beliefs and teachings 2.1 The Masters 2.2 The ancient wisdom religion 2.3 Theology and cosmology 2.3.1 Maitreya and messianism 2.4 Personal development and reincarnation 2.4.1 Reincarnation and karma 2.5 Morality and ethics 2.6 Ritual 3 Historical development 3.1 Post-Blavatsky 4 Demographics 5 Reception and legacy 5.1 Influence on the arts and culture 5.2 Influence on other religious and esoteric groups 5.3 Scholarly research 6 See also 7 Sources 7.1 Footnotes 7.2 Bibliography 7.3 Further reading 8 External links Definition Theosophy's founder, the Russian Helena Blavatsky, insisted that it was not a religion,[1] although she did refer to it as the modern transmission of the "once universal religion" that she claimed had existed deep into the human past.[2] That Theosophy should not be labeled a religion is a claim that has been maintained by Theosophical organizations,[3] who instead regard it as a system that embraces what they see as the "essential truth" underlying religion, philosophy, and science.[4] As a result, Theosophical groups allow their members to hold other religious allegiances,[5] resulting in Theosophists who also identify as Christians, Buddhists, or Hindus.[6] Scholars of religion who have studied Theosophy have characterized it as a religion.[7] In his history of the Theosophical movement, Bruce F. Campbell noted that Theosophy promoted "a religious world-view" using "explicitly religious terms" and that its central tenets are not unequivocal fact, but rather rely on belief.[8] Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein termed it "one of the modern world's most important religious traditions".[9] Various scholars have pointed to its eclectic nature; Joscelyn Godwin described it as a "universally eclectic religious movement",[10] while scholar J. Jeffrey Franklin characterized Theosophy as a "hybrid religion" for its syncretic combination of elements from various other sources.[11] More specifically, Theosophy has been categorized as a new religious movement.[12] Scholars have also classified Theosophy as a form of Western esotericism.[13] Campbell for instance referred to it as "an esoteric religious tradition",[14] while the historian Joy Dixon called it an "esoteric religion".[15] More specifically, it is considered a form of occultism.[16] Along with other groups like the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society has been seen as part of an "occult revival" that took place in Western countries during the late 19th century.[17] The historian of religion Wouter Hanegraaff noted that Theosophy helped to establish the "essential foundations for much of twentieth-century esotericism".[18] Although Theosophy draws upon Indian religious beliefs, the sociologist of religion Christopher Partridge observed that "Theosophy is fundamentally Western. That is to say, Theosophy is not Eastern thought in the West, but Western thought with an Eastern flavour."[19] Etymology Blavatsky and Olcott, two of the founding members of the Theosophical Society At a meeting of the Miracle Club in New York City on 7 September 1875, Blavatsky, Olcott, and Judge agreed to establish an organisation, with Charles Sotheran suggesting that they call it the Theosophical Society.[20] Prior to adopting the name "Theosophical", they had debated various potential names, among them the Egyptological Society, the Hermetic Society, and the Rosicrucian Society.[21] The term was not new, but had been previously used in various contexts by the Philaletheians and the Christian mystic Jakob Böhme.[22] Etymologically, the term came from the Greek theos ("god(s)") and sophia ("wisdom"), thus meaning "god-wisdom", "divine wisdom", or "wisdom of God".[23] The term theosophia appeared (in both Greek and Latin) in the works of early church fathers, as a synonym for theology.[24] In her book The Key to Theosophy, Blavatsky claimed that the term "Theosophy" had been coined by "the Alexandrian philosophers", especially Ammonius Saccas.[25] Blavatsky's Theosophy is not the only movement to use the term "theosophy" and this has resulted in scholarly attempts to differentiate the different currents. Godwin drew a division by referring to Blavatskian Theosophy with a capital letter and older, Boehmian theosophy with a lower-case letter.[26] Alternately, the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff distinguished the Blavatskian movement from its older namesake by terming it "modern Theosophy".[27] Followers of Blavatsky's movement are known as Theosophists, while adherents of the older tradition are termed theosophers.[26] Causing some confusion, a few Theosophists — such as C. C. Massey — were also theosophers.[26] In the early years of Blavatsky's movement, some critics referred to it as "Neo-Theosophy" to differentiate it from the older Christian theosophy movement.[28] The term "Neo-Theosophy" would later be adopted within the modern Theosophical movement itself, where it was used—largely pejoratively—to describe the teachings promoted by Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater by those who opposed their innovations.[28] According to the scholar of religion James A. Santucci, discerning what the term "Theosophy" meant to the early Theosophists is "not as obvious as one might think".[29] As used by Olcott, the term "Theosophy" appeared to be applied to an approach that emphasized experimentation as a means of learning about the "Unseen Universe"; conversely, Blavatsky used the term in reference to gnosis regarding said information.[30] Beliefs and teachings Although the writings of prominent Theosophists lay out a set of teachings, the Theosophical Society itself states that it has no official beliefs with which all members must agree. It therefore has doctrine but does not present this as dogma.[31] The Society stated that the only tenet to which all members should subscribe was a commitment "to form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color".[32] This means that there were members of the Theosophical Society who were skeptical about many, or even all, of the Theosophical doctrines, while remaining sympathetic to its basic aim of universal brotherhood.[6] As noted by Santucci, Theosophy is "derived primarily from the writings" of Blavatsky,[33] however revisions and innovations have also been produced by subsequent Theosophists like Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater.[34] Blavatsky claimed that these Theosophical doctrines were not her own invention, but had been received from a brotherhood of secretive spiritual adepts whom she referred to as the "Masters" or "Mahatmas".[35] The Masters Hermann Schmiechen's 1884 depiction of the two Masters with whom Blavatsky claimed to be in contact, Koot Humi (left) and Morya (right). Central to Theosophical belief is the idea that a group of spiritual adepts known as the Masters not only exist but were responsible for the production of early Theosophical texts.[36] For most Theosophists, these Masters are deemed to be the real founders of the modern Theosophical movement.[37] In Theosophical literature, these Masters are also referred to as the Mahatmas, Adepts, Masters of Wisdom, Masters of Compassion, and Elder Brothers.[37] They are perceived to be a fraternity of human men who are highly evolved, both in terms of having an advanced moral development and intellectual attainment.[37] They are claimed to have achieved extra-long life spans,[37] and to have gained supernatural powers, including clairvoyance and the ability to instantly project their soul out of their body to any other location.[38] These are powers that they have allegedly attained through many years of training.[38] According to Blavatsky, by the late 19th century their chief residence was in the Himalayan kingdom of Tibet.[37] She also claimed that these Masters were the source of many of her published writings.[37] The Masters are believed to preserve the world's ancient spiritual knowledge,[38] and to represent a Great White Brotherhood or White Lodge which watches over humanity and guides its evolution.[38] Among those whom the early Theosophists claimed as Masters were Biblical figures like Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus, Asian religious figures like Gautama Buddha, Confucius, and Laozi, and modern individuals like Jakob Bohme, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Franz Mesmer.[38] However, the most prominent Masters to appear in Theosophical literature are Koot Hoomi (sometimes spelled Kuthumi) and Morya, with whom Blavatsky claimed to be in contact.[39] According to Theosophical belief, the Masters approach those deemed worthy to embark on an apprenticeship or chelaship.[40] The apprentice would then undergo several years of probation, during which they must live a life of physical purity, remaining chaste, abstinent, and indifferent to physical luxury.[40] Blavatsky encouraged the production of images of the Masters.[41] The most important portraits of the Masters to be produced were created in 1884 by Hermann Schmiechen.[42] According to scholar of religion Massimo Introvigne, Schmiechen's images of Morya and Koot Humi gained "semi-canonical status" in the Theosophical community,[43] being regarded as sacred objects rather than simply decorative images.[44] Campbell noted that for non-Theosophists, the claims regarding the existence of the Masters are among the weakest made by the movement.[36] Such claims are open to examination and potential refutation, with challenges to the existence of the Masters therefore undermining Theosophical beliefs.[45] The idea of a brotherhood of secret adepts had a long pedigree stretching back several centuries before the foundation of Theosophy; such ideas can be found in the work of the Rosicrucians, and was popularized in the fictional literature of Edward Bulwer-Lytton.[46] The idea of having messages conveyed to a medium through spiritually advanced entities had also been popularized at the time of Theosophy's foundation through the Spiritualist movement.[46] The ancient wisdom religion According to Blavatsky's teachings, many of the world's religions have their origins in a universal ancient religion, a "secret doctrine" that was known to Plato and early Hindu sages and which continues to underpin the center of every religion.[47] She promoted the idea that ancient societies exhibited a unity of science and religion that humanity has since lost, with their achievements and knowledge being far in excess of what modern scholars believe about them.[48] Blavatsky also taught that a secret brotherhood has conserved this ancient wisdom religion throughout the centuries, and that members of this fraternity hold the key to understanding miracles, the afterlife, and psychic phenomena, and that moreover, these adepts themselves have paranormal powers.[49] She stated that this ancient religion would be revived and spread throughout humanity in the future, replacing dominant world religions like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism.[47] Theosophy tended to emphasize the importance of ancient texts over the popular ritual and custom found within various religious traditions.[6] The Theosophical depiction of Buddhism and Hinduism, however, drew criticism both from practitioners of orthodox Buddhist and Hindu traditions, as well as from Western scholars of these traditions, such as Max Müller, who believed that Theosophists like Blavatsky were misrepresenting the Asian traditions.[6] Theology and cosmology See also: Theosophy and Western philosophy Theosophy promotes an emanationist cosmology, promoting the belief that the universe is an outward reflection from the Absolute.[50] Theosophy presents the idea that the world as humans perceive it is illusory, or maya,[51] an idea that it draws from Asian religions.[52] Accordingly, Blavatsky taught that a life limited by the perception of this illusory world was ignorant and deluded.[53] According to Theosophical teaching, each solar system is an emanation of a "Logos" or "Solar Deity", with planetary spirits each overseeing one of the planets. According to Blavatsky's teaching, every solar system in the universe is the expression of what is termed a "Logos" or "Solar Deity".[54] Ranked below this Solar Deity are seven ministers or planetary spirits, with each of these celestial beings being in control of evolution on a particular planet.[54] In The Secret Doctrine, Blavatsky stated that each planet had a sevenfold constitution, known as the "Planetary Chains"; these consist not only of a physical globe but also of two astral bodies, two mental bodies, and two spiritual bodies, all overlapping in the same space.[55] According to Blavatsky, evolution occurs on descending and ascending arcs, from the first spiritual globe on to the first mental globe, then from the first astral globe to the first physical globe, and then on from there.[56] She claimed that there were different levels of evolution, from mineral on to vegetable, animal, human, and then to superhuman or spiritual.[56] Different levels of evolution occur in a successive order on each planet; thus when mineral evolution ends on the first planet and it proceeds on to vegetable evolution, then mineral evolution begins on the second planet.[56] Theosophy teaches that human evolution is tied in with this planetary and wider cosmic evolution.[57] In The Secret Doctrine, Blavatsky advocated the idea of seven "Root Races", each of which was divided into seven Sub-Races.[58] In Blavatsky's cosmogony, the first Root Race were created from pure spirit, and lived on a continent known as the "Imperishable Sacred Land".[59] The second Root Race, known as the Hyperboreans, were also formed from pure spirit, and lived on a land near to the North Pole, which then had a mild climate.[59] The third lived on the continent of Lemuria, which Blavatsky alleged survives today as Australia and Rapa Nui.[60] Blavatsky alleged that during the fourth Round of the Earth, higher beings descended to the planet, with the beginnings of human physical bodies developing, and the sexes separating.[61] At this point, the fourth Root Race appeared, living on the continent of Atlantis; they had physical bodies but also psychic powers and advanced technology.[62] She claimed that some Atlanteans were giants, and built such ancient monuments as Stonehenge in southern England, and that they also mated with "she-animals", resulting in the creation of gorillas and chimpanzees.[61] The Atlanteans were decadent and abused their power and knowledge, so Atlantis sunk into the sea, although various Atlanteans escaped, and created new societies in Egypt and the Americas.[61] The fifth Root Race to emerge was the Aryans, and was found across the world at the time she was writing.[61] She believed that the fifth Race would come to be replaced by the sixth, which would be heralded by the arrival of Maitreya, a figure from Mahayana Buddhist mythology.[63] She further believed that humanity would eventually develop into the final, seventh Root Race.[61] At this, she stated that humanity will have reached the end of its evolutionary cycle and life will withdraw from the Earth.[64] Lachman suggested that by reading Blavatsky's cosmogonical claims as a literal account of history, "we may be doing it a disservice."[61] He instead suggested that it could be read as Blavatsky's attempt to formulate "a new myth for the modern age, or as a huge, fantastic science fiction story".[61] Maitreya and messianism Blavatsky taught that Lord Maitreya—a figure she borrowed from Buddhist mythology—would come to Earth as a messianic figure.[65] Her ideas on this were expanded upon by Besant and Leadbeater.[65] They claimed that Maitreya had previously incarnated onto the Earth as Krishna, a figure from Hindu mythology.[65] They also claimed that he had entered Jesus of Nazareth at the time of the latter's baptism, and that henceforth Maitreya would be known as "the Christ".[65] Besant and Leadbeater claimed that Maitreya would again come to Earth by manifesting through an Indian boy named Jiddu Krishnamurti, whom Leadbeater had encountered playing on a beach at Adyar in 1909.[65] The introduction of the Krishmanurti belief into Theosophy has been identified as a millenarian element.[66] Personal development and reincarnation Statue of Blavatsky and Olcott at Adyar According to Theosophy, the purpose of human life is the spiritual emancipation of the soul.[67] The human individual is described as an "Ego" or "Monad" and believed to have emanated from the Solar Deity, to whom it will also eventually return.[57] The human being is presented as composed of seven parts, while operating on three separate planes of being.[68] As presented by Sinnett and often repeated in Theosophical literature, these seven parts are the Body (Rupa), Vitality (Prana-Jiva), the Astral Body (Linga Sarira), the Animal Soul (Kama-Rupa), the Human Soul (Manas), the Spiritual Soul (Buddhi), and the Spirit (Atma).[57] According to Theosophical teaching, it is the latter three of these components that are immortal, while the other aspects perish following bodily death.[67] Theosophy teaches that the Spiritual Soul and the Spirit do not reside within the human body alongside the other components, but that they are connected to it through the Human Soul.[67] In The Voice of the Silence, Blavatsky taught that within each individual human there is an eternal, divine facet, which she referred to as "the Master", the "uncreate", the "inner God", and the "higher self". She promoted the idea that uniting with this "higher self" results in wisdom.[53] In that same book, she compared the progress of the human soul to a transition through three halls; the first was that of ignorance, which is the state of the soul before it understands the need to unite with its higher self. The second is the Hall of Learning, in which the individual becomes aware of other facets of human life but is distracted by an interest in psychic powers. The third is the Hall of Wisdom, in which union with the higher self is made; this is then followed by the Vale of Bliss.[53] At this point the human soul can merge into the One.[53] Reincarnation and karma Throughout her writings, Blavatsky made a variety of statements about rebirth and the afterlife, and there is a discrepancy between her earlier and later teachings on the subject.[69] Between the 1870s and circa 1882, Blavatsky taught a doctrine called "metempsychosis".[69] In Isis Unveiled, Blavatsky stated that on bodily death, the human soul progresses through more spiritual planes.[70] Two years later, she introduced the idea of reincarnation into Theosophical doctrine,[71] using it to replace her metempsychosis doctrine.[72] In The Secret Doctrine, she stated that the spirit was immortal and would repeatedly incarnate into a new, mortal soul and body on Earth.[69] According to Theosophical teaching, human spirits will always be reborn into human bodies, and not into those of any other life forms.[67] Blavatsky stated that spirits would not be reborn until some time after bodily death, and never during the lifetime of the deceased's relatives.[73] Blavatsky taught that on the death of the body, the astral body survives for a time in a state called kama-loka, which she compared to limbo, before also dying.[74] According to this belief, the human then moves into its mental body in a realm called devachan, which she compared to Heaven or paradise.[74] Blavatsky taught that the soul remained in devachan for 1000 to 1500 years, although the Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater claimed that it was only 200.[75] Theosophy espouses the existence of karma as a system which regulates the cycle of reincarnation, ensuring that an individual's actions in one life affect the circumstances of their next one.[76] This belief therefore seeks to explain why misery and suffering exist in the world, attributing any misfortune that someone suffers as punishment for misdeeds that they perpetrated in a prior life.[77] In Blavatsky's words, karma and reincarnation were "inextricably interwoven".[78] However, she did not believe that karma had always been the system that governed reincarnation; she believed that it came into being when humans developed egos, and that one day will also no longer be required.[78] Besant and Leadbeater claimed to be able to investigate people's past lives through reading the akashic record, an etheric store of all the knowledge of the universe.[79] They, for instance, claimed to have attained knowledge of their own past lives as monkey-like creatures residing on the moon, where they served as pets to the "Moon-man" (a prior incarnation of the Master Morya), his wife (Koot Humi), and their child (the Lord Maitreya). When they were attacked by "savages" and animals "resembling furry lizards and crocodiles", Besant sacrificed herself to save Morya, and for that act made the karmic evolutionary leap to becoming a human in her next incarnation.[80] Morality and ethics The Theosophical seal as door decoration in Budapest, Hungary Theosophy does not express any formal ethical teaching,[81] a situation that generated ambiguity.[82] However, it has expressed and promoted certain values, such as brotherhood and social improvement.[82] During its early years, the Theosophical Society promoted a puritanical attitude toward sexuality, for instance by encouraging chastity even within marriage.[83] By 1911, the Theosophical Society was involved in projects connected to a range of progressive political causes.[84] In England, there were strong links between Theosophy and first-wave feminism.[84] Based on a statistical analysis, Dixon noted that prominent English feminists of the period were several hundred times more likely to join the Theosophical Society than was the average member of the country's population.[85] Theosophical contingents took part in feminist marches of the period; for instance, a Theosophical group operating under the banner of Universal Co-Freemasonry marched as part of the Women's Coronation Procession in 1911.[84] Ritual The Theosophical Society did not prescribe any specific rituals for adherents to practice.[3] However, ritualized practices have been established by various Theosophical groups; one such group is the Liberal Catholic Church.[3] Another is the meetings of the United Lodge of Theosophy, which has been characterized as having a "quasi-sacred and quasi-liturgical" character.[86] See also: Christianity and Theosophy § Theosophical Christianity Historical development The American social situation from which the Theosophical Society emerged was one of great upheaval, and the religious situation was one of challenge to orthodox Christianity. The forces that had surfaced in spiritualism included anticlericalism, anti-institutionalism, eclecticism, social liberalism, and belief in progress and individual effort. Occultism, mediated to America in the form of Mesmerism, Swedenborgianism, Freemasonry, and Rosicrucianism, was present. Recent developments in science led by the 1870s to renewed interest in reconciling science and religion. There was present also a hope that Asian religious ideas could be integrated into a grand religious synthesis. — Bruce F. Campbell, 1980.[87] The Theosophical Society was largely the creation of two individuals: Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott.[88] Established Christianity in the United States was experiencing challenges in the second half of the nineteenth century, a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, high rates of immigration, and the growing understanding of evolutionary theory which challenged traditional Christian accounts of history.[89] Various new religious communities were established in different parts of the country, among them the Free Religious Association, New Thought, Christian Science, and Spiritualism.[90] Theosophy would inherit the idea — then popular in the United States — that emphasized the idea of free will and the inevitability of progress, including on a spiritual level.[91] It was also influenced by a growing knowledge about Asian religions in the United States.[92] Prior to her arrival in the United States, Blavatsky had experience with esoteric currents like Spiritualism.[93] It was through Spiritualism that Blavatsky and Olcott met.[87] In 1884, Olcott established the first Scottish lodge, in Edinburgh.[94] In 1980, Campbell noted that Theosophical books were selling at record levels.[88] In the United States, Judge had been devoting himself to the promotion of Theosophy with little success.[95] Post-Blavatsky During her lifetime, Blavatsky had suggested to many different persons that they would be her successor.[96] Three of the most prominent candidates — Olcott, Judge, and Besant — all met in London shortly after her death to discuss the situation.[95] Judge claimed that he too was in contact with the Masters, and that they had provided him with a message instructing him to co-delegate the Society's Esoteric Section with Besant.[97] Olcott, however, suspected that the notes from the Masters which Judge was producing were forged, exacerbating tensions between them.[98] Besant attempted to act as a bridge between the two men, while Judge informed her that the Masters had revealed to him a plot that Olcott was orchestrating to kill her.[99] In 1893, Besant came down on Olcott's side in the argument and backed the internal proceedings that Olcott raised against Judge.[100] A two-stage enquiry took place, which concluded that because the Society took no official stance on whether the Masters existed or not, Judge could not be considered guilty of forgery and would be allowed to retain his position.[101] The details of this trial were leaked to the journalist F. Edmund Garrett, who used them as the basis of his critical book, Isis Very Much Unveiled.[102] Judge then announced that the Masters had informed him that he should take sole control of the Esoteric Section, deposing Besant; she rejected his claims.[103] Amid calls from Olcott that Judge should stand down, in April 1895 the American section voted to secede from the main Society. Judge remained its leader, but died within a year.[104] Besant with the child Krishnamurti Olcott then sent Besant to the United States to gain support for the Adyar-based Society. In this she was successful, gaining thousands of new members and establishing many new branches.[105] Besant had developed a friendship with the Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater, and together they co-wrote a number of books.[106] Leadbeater was controversial, and concerns were raised when he was found to have instructed two boys in masturbation. The American Section of the Theosophical Society raised internal charges against him, although Besant came to his defense .[107] In a move probably designed to limit negative publicity for the Society, they accepted his resignation rather than expelling him.[108] On Olcott's death in 1907, he had nominated Besant to be his successor, and she was then elected to the position with a large majority in June.[109] In her first years as the head of the Society, Besant oversaw a dramatic growth in its membership, raising it by 50%, to 23,000.[110] She also oversaw an expansion of the Adyar property, from 27 to 253 acres.[110] Besant was involved in various activist causes, promoting women's rights in India through the Women's Indian Association and helping to establish both the Central Hindu College and a Hindu girls' school.[110] Besant also began a campaign for Indian Home Rule, founding a group called the Home Rule League.[111] She established the New India newspaper, and after continuing to promote Indian independence in the paper's pages during the First World War she was interned for several months.[112] This helped to boost her status within the independence movement, and at the age of 70 she was appointed President of the Indian National Congress, a largely honorary position.[113] In December 1908, Leadbeater was readmitted to the Society; this generated a wave of resignations, with the Sydney branch seceding to form the Independent Theosophical Society.[91] Leadbeater traveled to Adyar, where he met a young boy living there, Jiddu Krishnamurti, and pronounced him to be the next incarnation of a figure called the World Teacher. He subsequently took control of the boy's instruction for two years.[114] With Besant, Leadbeater established a group known as the Order of the Star in the East to promote the idea of Krishnamurti as World Teacher.[115] Leadbeater also wanted more ritual within Theosophy, and to achieve this he and J. I. Wedgwood became bishops in the Old Catholic Church.[116] They then split from that to form their own Liberal Catholic Church, which was independent from the Theosophical Society (Adyar) while retaining an affiliation with it.[117] The Church drew most of its membership from the Society and heavily relied upon its resources.[118] However, in 1919 the Church was marred by police investigations into allegations that six of its priests had engaged in acts of pedophilia and Wedgewood — who was implicated in the allegations — resigned from the organization.[119] The Raja Yoga Academy and the Temple of Peace, c. 1915 In retaliation, a "Back to Blavatsky" movement emerged within the Society. Its members pejoratively referred to Besant and her followers as practitioners of "Neo-Theosophy", objecting to the Liberal Catholic Church's allegiance to the Pope, and to the prominence that they were according to Besant and Leadbeater's publications.[120] The main benefactor of the disquiet within the Back to Blavatsky movement was a rival group called the United Lodge of Theosophists.[121] One of the most prominent figures to switch allegiance was B. P. Wadia.[122] The United Lodge of Theosophists had been established in Los Angeles in 1909, when it had split from Judge's Theosophical Society in America, seeking to minimize formal organization.[122] It focused on publishing new editions of Blavatsky and Judge's writings, as well as other books, which were usually released anonymously so as to prevent any personality cults developing within the Theosophical movement.[123] The Adyar Society membership later peaked at 40,000 in the late 1920s.[124] The Order of the Star had 30,000 members at its height.[124] Krishnamurti himself repudiated these claims, insisting that he was not the World Teacher, and then resigned from the Society; the effect on the society was dramatic, as it lost a third of its membership over the coming few years.[125] Besant died in 1933, when the Society was taken over by George Arundale, who led it until 1945; the group's activities were greatly curtailed by World War II.[126] Judge left no clear successor as leader of the Theosophical Society in America, but the position was taken by Katherine Tingley, who claimed that she remained in mediumistic contact with Judge's spirit.[127] Tingley launched an international campaign to promote her Theosophical group, sending delegations to Europe, Egypt, and India. In the latter country they clashed with the Adyar-based Theosophical Society, and were unsuccessful in gaining converts.[128] Her leadership would be challenged by Ernest T. Hargrove in 1898, and when he failed he split to form his own rival group.[129] In 1897, Tingley had established a Theosophical community, Lomaland, at Point Loma in San Diego, California.[130] Various Theosophical writers and artists congregated there,[131] while horticultural development was also emphasized.[132] In 1919, the community helped establish a Theosophical University.[133] Longstanding financial problems coupled with an aging population resulted in the Society selling Lomaland in 1942.[134] Meanwhile, Tingley's death in 1929 had resulted in the Theosophical Society in America being taken over by Gottfried de Purucker, who promoted rapprochement with other Theosophical groups in what came to be known as the Fraternisation movement.[135] Demographics Theosophical Society lodge building in Reykjavík, Iceland Theosophical Hall in Palmerston North, New Zealand During its first century, Theosophy established itself as an international movement.[136] Campbell believed that from its foundation until 1980, Theosophy had gained tens of thousands of adherents.[137] He noted that in that latter year, there were circa 35,000 members of the Adyar-based Theosophical Society (9000 of whom were in India), c.5,500 members of the Theosophical Society in America, c.1500 members of the Theosophical Society International (Pasadena), and about 1200 members of the United Lodge of Theosophy.[138] Membership of the Theosophical Society reached its highest peak in 1928, when it had 45,000 members.[139] The HPB Lodge in Auckland, New Zealand was one of the world's largest, with over 500 members in 1949.[140] Theosophical groups consist largely of individuals as opposed to family groups.[64] Campbell noted that these members were alienated in ways from conventional social roles and practices.[64] As noted by Dixon, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Theosophical Society "appealed above all to an elite, educated, middle- and upper-middle-class constituency".[17] It was, in her words, "a religion for the 'thinking classes'."[17] Campbell stated that Theosophy attracted "unconventional, liberal-minded Westerners",[141] and according to Dixon they were among those "who constituted themselves as the humanitarian conscience of the middle classes, a dissident minority who worked in a variety of parallel organizations to critique the dominant bourgeois values and culture."[142] Campbell also noted that Theosophy appealed to educated Asians, and particularly Indians, because it identified Asia as being central to a universal ancient religion and allowed Asians to retain traditional religious beliefs and practices within a modern framework.[50] Reception and legacy Hammer and Rothstein believed that the formation and early history of the Theosophical Society was one of the "pivotal chapters of religious history in the West."[143] The Theosophical Society had significant effects on religion, politics, culture, and society.[144] In the Western world, it was a major force for the introduction of Asian religious ideas.[144] In 1980, Campbell described it as "probably the most important non-traditional or occult group in the last century",[144] while in 2012 Santucci noted that it had had "a profound impact on the contemporary religious landscape".[145] A Theosophical bookshop in Buenos Aires, Argentina In approaching Asian religion with respect and treating its religious beliefs seriously, Blavatsky and Olcott influenced South Asian society.[146] In India, it played an important role in the Indian independence movement and in the Buddhist revival.[144] The Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi developed much of his interest in Hindu culture after being given a copy of the Bhagavad Gita by two Theosophists.[147] Alongside her support for Indian home rule, Besant had also supported home rule for Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.[148] Campbell suggested that Theosophy could be seen as a "grandfather" movement to this 20th century growth in Asian spirituality.[149] Given the spread of such ideas in the West, some critics have perceived Theosophy's role as being largely obsolete.[150] Influence on the arts and culture Many important figures, in particular within the humanities and the arts, were involved in the Theosophical movement and influenced by its teachings.[145] Prominent scientists who had belonged to the Theosophical Society included the inventor Thomas Edison, the biologist Alfred Russel Wallace, and the chemist William Crookes.[146] Theosophy also exerted an influence on the arts.[151] Theosophy was also an influence over a number of early pioneers of abstract art.[152] Hilma af Klint's development of abstraction was directly tied to her work with the Theosophical Society, with the aim of presenting and preserving spiritual concepts visually.[153] The Russian abstract expressionist Wassily Kandinsky was also very interested in Theosophy and Theosophical ideas about colour.[154] The Dutch abstract artist Piet Mondrian was also influenced by Theosophical symbolism.[155] Theosophical ideas were also an influence on the Irish literary movement of the late 19th and early 20th century, with writers like Charles Johnston, George Russell, John Eglinton, Charles Weeks, and William Butler Yeats having an interest in the movement.[156] The American adventure fiction writer Talbot Mundy included Theosophical themes in many of his works.[157] He had abandoned his previous allegiance to Christian Science to join the Theosophical faction led by Tingley, joining the Society in 1923 and settling at the Point Loma community.[158] Influence on other religious and esoteric groups Bestsellers and television shows are devoted to Theosophical concepts such as reincarnation and spiritual evolution; the Internet overflows with references to Theosophical concepts such as the human aura (a Google search in May 2012 retrieved 47 million hits) and the chakras (12 million hits). Even truly mainstream media such as the National Geographic Channel present programs devoted to arch-Theosophical themes such as Atlantis, and the spiritual mysteries of Egypt. Terms and ideas created or mediated by spokespersons of the Theosophical Society have over time become household words, and the advent of Theosophy thus marked a fundamental change in the religious lives of countless individuals. — Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein, 2013.[9] The founders of many later new religious movements had been involved in Theosophy.[159] Many esoteric groups — such as Alice Bailey's Arcane School and Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy — are "directly dependent" on Theosophy.[144] Although he had split from Theosophy when renouncing Leadbeater's claim that he was the World Teacher, Krishnamurti continued to exhibit Theosophical influences in his later teachings.[160] In 1923 a former Theosophist, the Anglo-American Alice Bailey, established the Arcane School, which also rested on claims regarding contact with the Ascended Masters.[161] Another former Theosophist, the Austrian Rudolf Steiner, split from the Theosophical Society over the claims about Krishnamurti and then established his own Anthroposophical Society in 1913, which promoted Anthroposophy, a philosophy influenced by Theosophical ideas.[162] Despite his departure from the Theosophists, Rudolf Steiner nevertheless maintained a keen interest in Theosophy for the rest of his life.[163] As Theosophy entered the Völkisch movement of late 19th century Austria and Germany, it syncretized to form an eclectic occult movement known as Ariosophy.[164] The most prominent Ariosophist, the Austrian Guido von List, was influenced by Theosophical ideas in creating his own occult system.[165] In the United States during the 1930s, the I AM group was established by Guy Ballard and Edna Ballard; the group adopted the idea of the Ascended Masters from Theosophy.[166] The idea of the Masters—and a belief in Morya and Kuthumi—have also been adopted into the belief system of the Church Universal and Triumphant.[167] The Canadian mystic Manly P. Hall also cited Blavatsky's writings as a key influence on his ideas.[168] Theosophical ideas, including on the evolution of the Earth, influenced the teachings of British conspiracist David Icke.[169] Hammer and Rothstein stated that Theosophy came to heavily influence "popular religiosity" and by the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries was "permeating just about every nook and cranny of contemporary "folk" religious culture" in Western countries.[9] It was a major influence on the New Age milieu of the latter twentieth century.[170] It played an important role in promoting belief in reincarnation among Westerners.[171] Scholarly research Theosophy Hall in Manhattan, New York City A considerable amount of literature has been produced on the subject of Theosophy and the Theosophical Society.[172] Most early publications on Theosophy fell into two camps: either apologetic and highly defensive, or highly antagonistic and aggressive towards the movement.[149] As of 2001, the scholar of religion Olav Hammer could still note that books presenting the Theosophical doctrines were mostly apologetic in nature.[173] Examples of such works include William Q. Judge's 1893 book Ocean of Theosophy and Robert Ellwood's 1986 book Theosophy.[173] He noted that most of these works treated Theosophical doctrine as if it were a fixed entity and provided little or no discussion of how they have changed over the decades.[173] Many articles on the historical development of the movement have also appeared in the journal Theosophical History.[173] Many early scholars of religion dismissed Theosophy as being not worthy of study; Mircea Eliade for instance described Theosophy as a "detestable 'spiritual' hybridism".[174] The academic study of the Theosophical current developed at the intersection of two scholarly sub-fields: the study of new religious movements, which emerged in the 1970s, and the study of Western esotericism.[175] For example, Blavatsky Unveiled Volume 1[176] by theosophical scholar Moon Laramie provides a modern translation and dispassionate analysis of the first seven chapters of Isis Unveiled. A significant proportion of the scholarship on Theosophy constitutes biographies of its leading members and discussions of events in the Society's history.[172] In contrast to the significant amount of research focused on the first two generations of Theosophists, little has been produced on later figures.[174] Hammer also lamented that while scholarship on Theosophy was developing, it had not focused on the reformulation of Theosophy by Leadbeater and Besant or with the developing ideas of post-Theosophical writers such as Steiner or Bailey.[177] Hammer and Rothstein suggested that the "dearth of scholarly literature" on Theosophy was because "powerful individuals and institutions" in Europe and North America regarded the religion as "ludicrous", thus discouraging scholars from devoting their time to researching it.[174]
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